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Additional file 1: Figure S1. Enrollment process for participants. Table S1. Rankings of pain sites. Table S2. Number of pain sites and Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) scores (n = 12,883). Table S3. Demographic factors and prevalence of chronic pain among participants by municipality (n = 58). Figure S2. Distribution of age, gender, population density, and aging rate. The Xaxis indicates municipality IDs. The Y-axes indicate means of age (year), proportion of women (%), population density (people/km2 ), and aging rate (%). Figure S3. Prevalence of each type of chronic pain. The X-axis indicates the prevalence of each type of chronic musculoskeletal pain (CMP) (%), and the Y-axis indicates municipality IDs. The maximum, median, and minimum prevalence of CMP are also indicated.

Additional file 1: Table S1. Prevalence ratios [95% confidence intervals] of depressive symptoms: results of the multilevel analysis using individual sociodemographic characteristics

Additional file 6: Figure S2. Estimated prevalence of depressive symptoms with 95% confidence intervals by gender: cross-level interaction between municipality-level rurality and neighborhood-level rurality on depressive symptoms. The estimates were derived from a three-level multilevel Poisson regression adjusted for age as well as municipality-level rurality and neighborhood-level rurality.

Additional file 1: Supplementary Table S1. Criteria of Levels of Cognitive Disability in Japanese Long-Term Care Insurance System. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare in Japan classified eight ranks on a dementia scale according to people���s cognitive disability.

Additional file 1: Table A. Criteria for Levels of Cognitive Impairment in the Japanese Long-term Care Insurance System. Table B. The first-stage estimation between physical activity and residency in a snowy area. Table C. Comparison across different cut-offs of a deepest snow cover for the definition of a snowy area. Table D. Cox regressions for the association between physical activity and dementia excluding dementia onset within a year (N = 71,522). Table E. Complete case analysis using Cox regressions for the association between physical activity and dementia (N = 37,873).

Additional file 4: Table S4. Proportion of men and women living alone and of farmers by neighborhood-level rurality

Additional file 2: Table S2. Prevalence ratios [95% confidence intervals] of depressive symptoms among men: results of the sensitivity analyses

Additional file 3: Table S3. Prevalence ratios [95% confidence intervals] of depressive symptoms among women: results of the sensitivity analyses

Additional file 5: Figure S1. Distribution of mean community civic participation evaluated by neighborhood through municipality-level rurality and neighborhood-level rurality.

Figure S1. Methods of calculating objective availability of food stores. Table S1. Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for the association of mortality with subjective and objective availability of food stores among older Japanese adults (n = 49,511). Table S2. Number of food stores calculated by geographic information systems by subjective availability of food stores among older Japanese adults. Table S3. Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for the association of mortality with subjective availability of food stores among non-car users (n = 19,835). Table S4. Land slope in the school district of residence by subjective availability of food stores in older Japanese adults. Table S5. Baseline characteristics of older Japanese adults by subjective availability of food stores (n = 49,511). Table S6. Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for the association of mortality with subjective and objective availability of food stores by driving status among older Japanese adults who had lived in the same municipality for ≥30 years. Table S7. Hazard ratios with 95% confidence intervals for the association of mortality with subjective and objective availability of food stores by driving status among older Japanese adults after excluding early deaths (within 1 year). (DOCX 190 kb)