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The details of the processes responsible for heating the chromospheres of evolved cool stars remain uncertain. While most spectroscopic diagnostics measure spatially-integrated emission, here we examine diagnostics sensitive to localized atmospheric regions that are specific to cool evolved stars in binary systems with hot main-sequence companions: emission from Si i and C i resulting from the ultraviolet irradiation of the evolved star’s atmosphere. HST Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) high-spectral-resolution near-ultraviolet observations of ζ Aurigae A+B (K4 Ib + B5 V) were obtained at three orbital phases, including total eclipse, to search for Si i and the corresponding C i line emission. Si i 2987.645 Å emission was detected at phases ϕ = .101 and .448 (from periastron) in-line with predictions from a previous study of optical Si i 3905 Å and Si i 4102 Å emission lines. No other Si i line emission is apparent, and the analogous C i lines at 2478.561 Å and 2582.901 Å also are not detected. High-spectral-resolution HST STIS and Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph spectra confirm the results of a previous study that showed that the intrinsic chromospheric fluxes on the visible hemisphere of ζ Aur A, observed during total eclipse, are representative of the single K supergiant λ Vel (K4 Ib). Furthermore, the HST spectra show that the chromospheric turbulent velocities are very close to those in this spectral-type proxy. These combined results highlight the importance of detailed spatially-resolved chromospheric models of ζ Aur systems, based on sequences of atmospheric eclipse spectra, to help constrain the poorly understood mechanisms that heat the atmospheres and drive stellar winds in cool evolved stars.

In this paper we aim to constrain the wind temperature, outflow and turbulent velocities, ionization state, and mass-loss rate of the single red giant Arcturus (α Boo K1.5 III) using high spectral resolution Hubble Space Telescope Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph profiles of Si iii 1206.5 Å , O i 1304 Å and 1306 Å, C ii 1334 Å and 1335 Å, and Mg ii h 2802 Å. The use of the E140-H setting for α Boo allows the Si iii 1206.5 Å line to be cleanly extracted from the echelle format for the first time. The ratios of the wind optical depths of lines from different species constrain the temperature at the base of the wind to T wind ∼ 15,400 K. The mass-loss rate derived is 2.5 × 10−11 M ⊙ yr − 1 for Epoch 2018–2019, smaller than previous semiempirical estimates. These results can be reconciled with multiwavelength Very Large Array radio continuum fluxes for Epoch 2011–2012 by increasing the temperature to T wind ∼ 18,000 K, or increasing the mass-loss rate to 4.0 × 10−11 M ⊙ yr − 1 . Interpreting the wind acceleration and turbulence in terms of a steady WKB Alfvén wave–driven wind reveals that the wave energy damping length increases with increasing radius, opposite to the trend expected for ion-neutral damping of monochromatic waves, confirming a previous result by Kuin and Ahmad derived for ζ Aur binaries. This implies that a spectrum of waves is required in this framework with wave periods in the range of hours to days, consistent with the photospheric granulation timescale. Constraints on a radial magnetic field (B) at 1.2 R * are an upper limit of B ≤ 2 G from the implied wave heating, and B ≥ 0.3 G to avoid excessive wave amplitudes.

We report NASA-DLR SOFIA upGREAT circumstellar [O i] 63.2 μm and [C ii] 157.7 μm emission profiles and FIFI-LS [O i] 63.2 μm, [O i] 145.5 μm, and [C ii] 157.7 μm fluxes obtained shortly after Betelgeuse’s 2019/2020 Great Dimming event. Haas et al. noted a potential correlation between the [O i] 63.2 μm flux and V magnitude based on three Kuiper Airborne Observatory observations made with the CGS and FIFI instruments. The FIFI observation was obtained when V ≃ 0.88 and revealed a 3σ non-detection at a quarter of the previous CGS flux measurement made when V ≃ 0.35. A potential explanation could be a change in dust-gas drag heating by circumstellar silicates caused by variations in the photospheric radiation field. SOFIA observations provide a unique test of this correlation because the V-band brightness went to its lowest value on record, V ≃ 1.61, with the SOFIA observations being made when V FIFI−LS ≃ 1.51 and V upGREAT ≃ 1.36. The upGREAT spectra show a [O i] 63.2 μm flux larger than previous space observatory measurements obtained when V ≃ 0.58. The profile is consistent with formation in the slower, more turbulent inner S1 outflow, while the [C ii] 157.7 μm profile is consistent with formation farther out in the faster S2 outflow. Modeling of dust-gas drag heating, combined with 25 yr of Wing three-filter and V photometry, reveals that it is unlikely that the S1 circumstellar envelope and [O i] 63.2 μm fluxes are dominated by the dust-gas drag heating and that another heating source is also active. The [O i] 63.2 μm profile is hard to reconcile with existing outflow velocity models.

The processes that shape the extended atmospheres of red supergiants (RSGs), heat their chromospheres, create molecular reservoirs, drive mass loss, and create dust remain poorly understood. Betelgeuse's V-band "Great Dimming" event of 2019 September /2020 February and its subsequent rapid brightening provides a rare opportunity to study these phenomena. Two different explanations have emerged to explain the dimming; new dust appeared in our line of sight attenuating the photospheric light, or a large portion of the photosphere had cooled. Here we present five years of Wing three-filter (A, B, and C band) TiO and near-IR photometry obtained at the Wasatonic Observatory. These reveal that parts of the photosphere had a mean effective temperature $(T_{\rm eff}$) significantly lower than that found by (Levesque & Massey 2020). Synthetic photometry from MARCS -model photospheres and spectra reveal that the V band, TiO index, and C-band photometry, and previously reported 4000-6800 Angstrom spectra can be quantitatively reproduced if there are multiple photospheric components, as hinted at by VLT-SPHERE images (Montarges et al. 2020). If the cooler component has $\Delta T_{\rm eff} \ge 250$ K cooler than 3650 K, then no new dust is required to explain the available empirical constraints. A coincidence of the dominant short- ($\sim 430$ day) and long-period ($\sim 5.8$ yr) V-band variations occurred near the time of deep minimum (Guinan et al. 2019). This is in tandem with the strong correlation of V mag and photospheric radial velocities, recently reported by Dupree et al. (2020b). These suggest that the cooling of a large fraction of the visible star has a dynamic origin related to the photospheric motions, perhaps arising from pulsation or large-scale convective motions., Comment: Accepted ApJ - 19 pages, 5 figures

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Red supergiant stars are surrounded by a gaseous and dusty circumstellar environment created by their mass loss which spreads heavy elements into the interstellar medium. The structure and the dynamics of this envelope are crucial to understand the processes driving the red supergiant mass loss and the shaping of the pre-supernova ejecta. We have observed the emission from the CO $J = 2-1$ line from the red supergiant star $\mu$~Cep with the NOEMA interferometer. In the line the synthesized beam was $0.92 \times 0.72$~arcsec ($590 \times 462$~au at 641~pc). The continuum map shows only the unresolved contribution of the free-free emission of the star chromosphere. The continuum-subtracted channel maps reveal a very inhomogeneous and clumpy circumstellar environment. In particular, we detected a bright CO clump, as bright as the central source in the line, at 1.80~arcsec south-west from the star, in the blue channel maps. After a deprojection of the radial velocity assuming two different constant wind velocities, the observations were modelled using the 3D radiative transfer code \textsc{lime} to derive the characteristics of the different structures. We determine that the gaseous clumps observed around $\mu$~Cep are responsible for a mass loss rate of $(4.9 \pm 1.0) \times 10^{-7}~{\rm M}_\odot\,{\rm yr}^{-1}$, in addition to a spatially unresolved wind component with an estimated mass-loss rate of $2.0 \times 10^{-6}~{\rm M}_\odot\,{\rm yr}^{-1}$. Therefore, the clumps have a significant role in $\mu$~Cep's mass loss ($\ge 25 \%$). We cannot exclude that the unresolved central outflow may be made of smaller unresolved clumps., Comment: 15 pages, 4 tables, 9 figures. 2nd version : one co-author removed and acknowledgement updated (consistent with erratum https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stz1006)

We provide an update for the astrometric solution for the Type II supernova progenitor Betelgeuse using the revised Hipparcos Intermediate Astrometric Data (HIAD) of van Leeuwen, combined with existing VLA and new e-MERLIN and ALMA positions. The 2007 Hipparcos refined abscissa measurements required the addition of so-called Cosmic Noise of 2.4 mas to find an acceptable 5-parameter stochastic solution. We find that a measure of radio Cosmic Noise should also be included for the radio positions because surface inhomogeneities exist at a level significant enough to introduce additional intensity centroid uncertainty. Combining the 2007 HIAD with the proper motions based solely on the radio positions leads to a parallax of π =5.27+/- 0.78 mas ({190}-25+33 pc), smaller than the Hipparcos 2007 value of 6.56 ± 0.83 mas ({152}-17+22 pc). Furthermore, combining the VLA and new e-MERLIN and ALMA radio positions with the 2007 HIAD, and including radio Cosmic Noise of 2.4 mas, leads to a nominal parallax solution of 4.51 ± 0.80 mas ({222}-34+48 pc), which, while only 0.7σ different from the 2008 solution of Harper et al., is 2.6σ different from the solution of van Leeuwen. An accurate and precise parallax for Betelgeuse is always going to be difficult to obtain because it is small compared to the stellar angular diameter (θ =44 mas). We outline an observing strategy utilizing future mm and sub-mm high-spatial resolution interferometry that must be used if substantial improvements in the precision and accuracy of the parallax and distance are to be achieved. ispartof: Astrophysical Journal vol:154 issue:1 pages:6- status: published

From our Secret Lives of Cepheids program, the prototype Classical Cepheid, $\delta$ Cep, is found to be an X-ray source with periodic pulsation-modulated X-ray variations. This finding complements our earlier reported phase-dependent FUV--UV emissions of the star that increase $\sim$10--20 times with highest fluxes at $\sim0.90-0.95\phi$, just prior to maximum brightness. Previously, $\delta$ Cep was found as potentially X-ray variable, using XMM-Newton observations (Engle et al. 2014). Additional phase-constrained data were secured with Chandra near X-ray emission peak, to determine if the emission and variability were pulsation-phase-specific to $\delta$ Cep and not transient or due to a possible coronally-active, cool companion. The Chandra data were combined with prior XMM-Newton observations, and very closely match the previously observed X-ray behavior. From the combined dataset, a $\sim$4$\times$ increase in X-ray flux is measured, reaching a peak $L_X$ = 1.7 $\times$ 10$^{29}$ erg s$^{-1}$ near 0.45$\phi$. The precise X-ray flux phasing with the star's pulsation indicates that the emissions arise from the Cepheid and not a companion. However, it is puzzling that maximum X-ray flux occurs $\sim$0.5$\phi$ ($\sim$3 days) later than the FUV--UV maximum. There are several other potential Cepheid X-ray detections with properties similar to $\delta$ Cep, and comparable X-ray variability is indicated for two other Cepheids: $\beta$ Dor and V473 Lyr. X-ray generating mechanisms in $\delta$ Cep and other Cepheids are discussed. If additional Cepheids are confirmed to show phased X-ray variations, then $\delta$ Cep will be the prototype of new class of pulsation-induced X-ray variables., Comment: 16 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables, accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal

Convection, pulsation and magnetic fields have all been suggested as mechanisms for the transport of mass and energy from the optical photosphere of red supergiants, out to the region where the stellar wind is launched. We imaged the red supergiant Betelgeuse at 0.06-0.18 arcsec resolution, using e-Multi-Element Radio-Linked Interferometer Network (e-MERLIN) at 5.5-6.0 GHz, with a sensitivity of ˜10 μJy beam-1. Most of the radio emission comes from within an ellipse (0.235 × 0.218) arcsec2 (˜5 times the optical radius), with a flux density of 1.62 mJy, giving an average brightness temperature ˜1250 K. This radio photosphere contains two hotspots of 0.53 and 0.79 mJy beam-1, separated by 90 mas, with brightness temperatures 5400 ± 600 K and 3800 ± 500 K. Similar hotspots, at more than double the distance from the photosphere of those seen in any other regime, were detected by the less-sensitive `old' MERLIN in 1992, 1995 and 1996 and many exceed the photospheric temperature of 3600 K. Such brightness temperatures are high enough to emanate from pockets of chromospheric plasma. Other possibilities include local shock heating, the convective dredge-up of hot material or exceptionally cool, low-density regions, transparent down to the hottest layer at ˜40 mas radius. We also detect an arc 0.2-0.3 arcsec to the SW, brightness temperature ˜150 K, in a similar direction to extensions seen on both smaller and larger scales in the infrared and in CO at mm wavelengths. These preliminary results will be followed by further e-MERLIN, Very Large Array and Atacama Large Millimeter/sub-millimeter Array (ALMA) observations to help resolve the problem of mass elevation from 1 to 10 R⋆ in red supergiants. ispartof: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society vol:432 issue:1 pages:L61-L65 status: published

We observed Betelgeuse using ALMA's extended configuration in band 7 (f~340 GHz, {\lambda}~0.88 mm), resulting in a very high angular resolution of 18 mas. Using a solid body rotation model of the 28SiO(v=2,J=8-7) line emission, we show that the supergiant is rotating with a projected equatorial velocity of v_eq sin i = 5.47 +/- 0.25 km/s at the equivalent continuum angular radius R_star = 29.50 +/- 0.14 mas. This corresponds to an angular rotation velocity of {\omega} sin i = (5.6 +/- 1.3) x 10^(-9) rad/s. The position angle of its north pole is PA = 48.0 +/- 3.5{\deg}. The rotation period of Betelgeuse is estimated to P/sin i = 36 +/- 8 years. The combination of our velocity measurement with previous observations in the ultraviolet shows that the chromosphere is co-rotating with the star up to a radius of ~10 au (45 mas or 1.5x the ALMA continuum radius). The coincidence of the position angle of the polar axis of Betelgeuse with that of the major ALMA continuum hot spot, a molecular plume, and a partial dust shell (from previous observations) suggests that focused mass loss is currently taking place in the polar region of the star. We propose that this hot spot corresponds to the location of a particularly strong "rogue" convection cell, which emits a focused molecular plume that subsequently condenses into dust at a few stellar radii. Rogue convection cells therefore appear to be an important factor shaping the anisotropic mass loss of red supergiants., Comment: 18 pages, 19 figures, accepted for publication in A&A, update of bibliography and acknowledgements

We identify two complexes of Fe II emission lines in far-ultraviolet spectra of the stars α TrA and HD 104237. Using spectra from both the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), we show that these emission lines, which represent the majority of previously unidentifed emission features in cool star spectra between 912 and 1180 A, are fluorescent decays in Fe II following excitation by H Lyα. Specifically, following photoexcitation from the third term (4s a 4D) of Fe II, subsequent decays are observed to the two lowest terms (4s a 6D and 3d7 a 4F) which are observed near 1100 and 1135 A, respectively. Decays to higher terms, and hence longer wavelengths, also are clearly seen in the STIS spectra. Differences in the fluorescent Fe II spectra of α TrA and HD 104237 are tentatively identified as resulting from differences in the intrinsic width of the density-weighted H Lyα radiation fields. The additional Fe II lines observed in α TrA result from a broadened H Lyα profile. Two features near 1060 A appear to be fluorescent lines of Cr II, also excited by H Lyα.

We examine the thermal free-free millimetre fluxes expected from non-dusty and non-pulsating K through mid-M giant stars based on our limited understanding of their inhomogeneous chromospheres. We present a semi-analytic model that provides estimates of the radio fluxes for the mm wavelengths (e.g., CARMA, ALMA, JVLA Q-band) based on knowledge of the effective temperatures, angular diameters and chromospheric Mg II h & k emission fluxes. At 250 GHz, the chromospheric optical depths are expected to be significantly less than unity, which means that fluxes across the mm and sub-mm range will have a contribution from the chromospheric mate- rial that gives rise to the ultraviolet emission spectrum, as well as the cool molecular material known to exist above the photosphere. We predict a lower bound to the inferred brightness temperature of red giants based on heating at the basal-flux limit if the upper chromospheres have filling factor 1. Multi-frequency mm observations should provide important new information on the structuring of the inhomogeneous chromospheres, including the boundary layer, and allow tests of competing theoretical models for atmospheric heating. We comment on the suitability of these stars as mm flux calibrators.

Recently, it has been proposed that the winds of non-pulsating and non-dusty K and M giants and supergiants may be driven by some form of magnetic pressure acting on highly clumped wind material. While many researchers believe that magnetic processes are responsible for cool evolved stellar winds, existing MHD and Alfven wave-driven wind models have magnetic fields that are essentially radial and tied to the photosphere. The clumped magnetic wind scenario is quite different in that the magnetic flux is also being carried away from the star with the wind. We test this clumped wind hypothesis by computing continuum radio fluxes from the ζ Aur semiempirical model of Baade et al., which is based on wind-scattered line profiles. The radio continuum opacity is proportional to the electron density squared, while the line scattering opacity is proportional to the gas density. This difference in proportionality provides a test for the presence of large clumping factors. We derive the radial distribution of clump factors (CFs) for ζ Aur by comparing the nonthermal pressures required to produce the semiempirical velocity distribution with the expected thermal pressures. The CFs are ~5 throughout the sub-sonic inner wind region and then decline outward. These implied clumping factors lead to excess radio emission at 2.0 cm, while at 6.2 cm it improves agreement with the smooth unclumped model. Smaller clumping factors of ~2 lead to better overall agreement but also increase the discrepancy at 2 cm. These results do not support the magnetic clumped wind hypothesis and instead suggest that inherent uncertainties in the underlying semiempirical model probably dominate uncertainties in predicted radio fluxes. However, new ultraviolet line and radio continuum observations are needed to test the new generations of inhomogeneous magnetohydrodynamic wind models.

The Kepler satellite provides a unique opportunity to study the detailed optical photometric variability of late-type stars with unprecedentedly long (several year) continuous monitoring and sensitivity to very small-scale variations. We are studying a sample of over two hundred cool (mid-A - late-K spectral type) stars using Kepler long-cadence (30 minute sampling) observations. These stars show a remarkable range of photometric variability, but in this paper we concentrate on rotational modulation due to starspots and flaring. Modulation at the 0.1% level is readily discernable. We highlight the rapid timescales of starspot evolution seen on solar-like stars with rotational periods between 2 and 7 days.

The solar Mg I emission lines at 12 micrometer have already been observed and analyzed well. Previous modeling attempts for other stars have, however, been made only for Procyon and two cool evolved stars, with unsatisfactory results for the latter. We present high-resolution observational spectra for the K giants Pollux, Arcturus, and Aldebaran, which show strong Mg I emission lines at 12 micrometer as compared to the Sun. We also present the first observed stellar emission lines from Mg I at 18 micrometer and from Al I, Si I, and presumably Ca I at 12 micrometer. To produce synthetic line spectra, we employ standard non-LTE modeling for trace elements in cool stellar photospheres. We compute model atmospheres with the MARCS code, apply a comprehensive magnesium model atom, and use the radiative transfer code MULTI to solve for the magnesium occupation numbers in statistical equilibrium. We successfully reproduce the observed Mg I emission lines simultaneously in the giants and in the Sun, but show how the computed line profiles depend critically on atomic input data and how the inclusion of energy levels with n > 9 and collisions with neutral hydrogen are necessary to obtain reasonable fits.

The distance to the M supergiant Betelgeuse is poorly known, with the Hipparcos parallax having a significant uncertainty. For detailed numerical studies of M supergiant atmospheres and winds, accurate distances are a prerequisite to obtaining reliable estimates for many stellar parameters. New high spatial resolution, multiwavelength, NRAO33The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Very Large Array (VLA) radio positions of Betelgeuse have been obtained and then combined with Hipparcos Catalogue Intermediate Astrometric Data to derive new astrometric solutions. These new solutions indicate a smaller parallax, and hence greater distance (197 ± 45 pc), than that given in the original Hipparcos Catalogue (131 ± 30 pc) and in the revised Hipparcos reduction. They also confirm smaller proper motions in both right ascension and declination, as found by previous radio observations. We examine the consequences of the revised astrometric solution on Betelgeuse's interaction with its local environment, on its stellar properties, and its kinematics. We find that the most likely star-formation scenario for Betelgeuse is that it is a runaway star from the Ori OB1 association and was originally a member of a high-mass multiple system within Ori OB1a.

We report the detection of thermal continuum radio emission from the K0 III coronal giant Pollux ($\beta$ Gem) with the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA). The star was detected at 21 and 9 GHz with flux density values of $150\pm21$ and $43\pm8\,\mu$Jy, respectively. We also place a $3\sigma_{\mathrm{rms}}$ upper limit of $23\,\mu$Jy for the flux density at 3 GHz. We find the stellar disk-averaged brightness temperatures to be approximately 9500, 15000, and $

The "hybrid chromosphere" star α Trianguli Australis (K2 Ib-IIa) displays atypical coronal properties for its class: elevated soft X-ray emission, flare outbursts, and a superhot (T ~ 10 MK) spectrum. The Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) now has found a faint object close to the red supergiant, 0.4'' nearly due south and about 1% its intensity in the F160BW ultraviolet filter, consistent with a G0 dwarf. Potentially, the "young sun" companion to the massive primary could completely dominate the coronal luminosity. The X-ray centroid in a contemporaneous Chandra High-Resolution Camera (HRC) pointing is offset in the direction of the faint UV secondary, but measurements of the radio counterpart of a serendipitous X-ray source 12'' southeast (SE) of α TrA, obtained with the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA), suggest a conflicting offset.

Ultraviolet spectra ofTau (K5 III) obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) show many emission lines affectedbybroad absorptionfrom thestrongwindof thisred giant star. For the Mgii handklines there isalsoa narrow absorptionfeature in the midst of the windabsorptionthathas beeninterpreted as being fromTau's windYinterstellar medium (ISM) interaction region (i.e., its ''astrosphere''). We try to reproduce this absorption using hydrodynamic models of theTau astrosphere, which show that stellar wind material heated, compressed, and decelerated at the wind's termination shock (TS) can produce significant absorption at about the right velocity. By experimenting with different model input parameters, we findthatthe parameter that the absorptionismostsensitive to isthe ISM pressure, which determines the location of and therefore the density at the TS. However, the models underestimate both the amountofdecelerationatthe TSand the amountof absorptionfor realistic input parameters. We demonstrate thatthese problems can in principle be resolved by modeling the TS as a radiative shock. However, a cooling timescale short enough to affect the postshock flow is only attainable ifTau's wind speed is increased from the 27Y30 km s � 1 values derivedfromfitstowindabsorptiontoatleast35kms � 1 . The modelsalsoseemto require averyhighISM pressure of P/k � 30;000 cm � 3 K toinducedensitiesattheTShighenoughtoyieldsufficient radiativecooling.Thispressureis at least a factor of 2 higher than other estimates of ISM thermal pressure within the Local Bubble. Subject headingg circumstellar matter — stars: individual (� Tauri) — stars: winds, outflows — ultraviolet: stars

We examine the little-known phenomenon of orbitally modulated Si i emission at λ 3905.523 Å and λ 4102.936 Å in composite-spectrum binaries, with specific reference to ζ Aurigae (K4 Ib + B5 V). The emission is detected in the isolated spectrum of the B-type dwarf secondary, and while λ 4102 Å is heavily blended with Hδ, λ 3905 Å falls in the B-star's featureless continuum. The narrowness of the emission (vturb ≃ 6 km s−1) demonstrates that it originates in the upper photosphere or deep chromosphere of the K star primary. We propose that photoexcitation by the hot star's UV continuum, followed by recombination and cascades, leads to resonant scattering and subsequent pumping of lower opacity transitions in the singlet and triplet systems of Si i. This process channels the UV continuum into select narrow emission lines. We have also identified weaker photoexcited emission of Fe ii at λ 3938.289 Å. The strengths, positions, and widths of the λ 3905 Å emission line vary with orbital phase owing to changes in the dilution of the irradiating flux and in the geometrical aspect of the irradiated hemisphere. Utilizing the inherent spatial resolution provided by the illuminated patch, and assuming that the K star is spherical with isotropic emission, yields vsin i ∼ 5.7 km s−1. Evidence of tidal distortion was deduced from the timing of the rapidly rising phase of the emission just after periastron. Increasing the diagnostic potential requires radiative transfer modelling of the formation and centre-to-limb variation of the emission.

The Chandra X-Ray Observatory has detected coronal (T 106 K) emission from the red giant γ Draconis (HD 164058: K5 III; d = 45 pc), now fully resolved from a stronger source 21'' to the SE that had confused earlier measurements by Rontgensatellit (ROSAT). The second source is coincident with the 13th magnitude visual component ADS 10923B (γ Dra B), possibly a dM star in a wide orbit around the red giant. The 0.2-2 keV luminosity of γ Dra is LX ~ 1.2 × 1027 ergs s-1 (1 σ confidence interval), assuming log(Tcor) 6.5 K, while that of the faint optical companion is 3.2 × 1027 ergs s-1, assuming the same distance. Both sources have an intermediate spectral hardness within the range displayed by coronal stars. γ Dra has LX/Lbol an order of magnitude brighter than the other red giants previously imaged by Chandra, Arcturus (α Boo: K1.5 III) and Aldebaran (α Tau: K5 III), despite having an only 2 × elevated LC iv/Lbol (T ~ 105 K).

The extended atmosphere of the M supergiant Betelgeuse is complex with cool plasma dominating the structure by mass and small amounts of embedded hotter chromospheric plasma. A major challenge is to understand the interrelationship and juxtaposition of these different components, which in turn may provide clues to the nature of the process of nonradiative heating and the mechanisms that drive mass loss. We examine the chromospheric C II] λ2325 multiplet emission line electron density diagnostic using spatially scanned HST STIS echelle spectra. Escape probability models for the electron density-sensitive line ratios reveal that the mean electron density decreases by 0.6 dex as the sight line goes from disk center to ±75 mas. Radiative transfer simulations using spherical model atmospheres show that this trend can be explained if the electron density declines with radius by nearly 2 dex across ΔR ~ 2R*. The emission profiles indicate that the chromospheric material corotates with the star and then becomes decoupled by ±75 mas from disk center. We find no evidence for radial outflow in the chromospheric plasma. We find that the strongest C II] λ2325 emission lines are opacity broadened and that the gradient of atmospheric turbulence is surprisingly small. Using empirical constraints, we derive a relation between the relative C II column densities in the cool and chromospheric atmospheric components and the excitation temperature. These UV chromospheric results and previous radio analyses suggest that the chromosphere is pervasive but has a small filling factor at ~3R*, suggestive of confinement and heating in magnetic structures.

A Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) pointing on the ultrafast rotating yellow giant FK Comae Berenices (HD 117555; v sin i ~ 163 km s-1) recorded emission profiles of C III λ977 (T ~ 8 × 104 K) and O VI λ1031 (T ~ 3 × 105 K) that are exceptionally broad and asymmetric, but nearly identical in shape, aside from a blueward absorption component in the latter (identified as interstellar O I, rather than, say, a C III outflow feature). The FWHMs exceed 500 km s-1, twice the broadest far-UV line shape of any normal late-type star observed to date, but similar to the Hα profiles of FK Com, and following the trend of other fast spinning early G giants that often display "superrotational" broadening of their UV "hot" lines. Although the red-asymmetric O VI λ1031 profile is suggestive of an outflow at ~3 × 105 K, the weaker member of the doublet, λ1037, does not display the differential absorption pattern expected from a warm wind. Furthermore, at times the chromospheric Mg II λ2796 + λ2803 composite profile, from a collection of International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) echellegrams obtained two decades earlier, is nearly identical in shape to red-asymmetric O VI λ1031. A contemporaneous optical Doppler map places the photospheric dark spots mainly in the polar regions of the approaching hemisphere. The dominantly redward biased profiles of C III and O VI could be explained if the associated emission zones were leading the starspots in phase and partially rooted in lower latitudes.

We report Chandra detections of coronal X-rays from the early G supergiants α Aquarii (HD 209750: G2 Ib) and β Aquarii (HD 204867: G0 Ib). Previous ROSAT observations of these archetypical "hybrid chromosphere" stars were inconclusive, in the case of α Aqr owing to a 38' mispointing, and for β Aqr because of a small positional discrepancy of the apparent source. The Chandra High Resolution Camera (HRC-I), with its superior spatial resolution and sensitivity, has obtained a positive detection of α Aqr and recovered faint emission at the location of β Aqr, now well separated from the stronger source to the southeast that dominated the earlier ROSAT image. The coronal LX/LC IV luminosity ratios of both supergiants are extremely depressed relative to early G main-sequence stars, continuing the "X-ray deficiency syndrome" originally identified in late F/early G luminosity class III giants of the Hertzsprung gap.

Studies of the winds from single K and early M evolved stars indicate that these flows typically reach a significant fraction of their terminal velocity within the first couple of stellar radii. The most detailed spatially resolved information of the extended atmospheres of these spectral types comes from the ζ Aur eclipsing binaries. However, the wind acceleration inferred for the evolved primaries in these systems appears significantly slower than for stars of similar spectral type. Since there are no successful theories for mass loss from K and early M evolved stars, it is important to place strong empirical constraints on potential models and determine whether this difference in acceleration is real or an artifact of the analyses. We have undertaken a radio continuum monitoring study of ζ Aurigae (K4 Ib + B5 V) using the Very Large Array to test the wind density model of Baade et al. that is based on Hubble Space Telescope (HST) Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph ultraviolet spectra. ζ Aur was monitored at centimeter wavelengths over a complete orbital cycle, and flux variations during the orbit are found to be of similar magnitude to variations at similar orbital phases in the adjacent orbit. During eclipse, the flux does not decrease, showing that the radio emission originates from a volume substantially larger than R ~ (150 R⊙)3 surrounding the B star. Using the one-dimensional density model of the K4 Ib primary's wind derived from HST spectral line profile modeling and electron temperature estimates from previous optical and new HST studies, we find that the predicted radio fluxes are consistent with those observed. Three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations indicate that the accretion flow perturbations near the B star do not contribute significantly to the total radio flux from the system, consistent with the radio eclipse observations. Our radio observations confirm the slow wind acceleration for the evolved K4 Ib component. ζ Aur's velocity structure does not appear to be typical of single stars with similar spectral types. This highlights the need for more comprehensive multiwavelength studies for both single stars, which have been sadly neglected, and other ζ Aur systems to determine if its wind properties are typical.

Pioneering studies of winds from non-coronal evolved late-type stars were plagued by uncertainties in the Ca ionization balance which severely limited the accuracy of derived mass-loss rates. Here we re-examine the Ca II ionization balance in these stellar winds using FUSE spectra which reveal, for the first time, the flux from the photoionizing radiation field shortward of 1045Â. We present a FUSE 912-1185Â spectroscopic survey of evolved late-K and M stars; including the M giants α Cet (M1.5 III), γ Cru (M3.5 III), β Gru (M4.5 III), and R Dor (M8e III). Using FUSE spectra of α Tau (K5 III), supplemented with partial redistribution calculations of H Ly-α and Ly-β, together with UV and radio data, we present a study of α Tau's wind ionization balance and derive new constraints which place the mass-loss rate significantly below that suggested by the Reimers formula.

Multifrequency spatially-resolved radio continuum observations of the M supergiants, α Ori (M2 Iab) and α Sco (M1.5 Iab + B2.5 V), have been obtained using the VLA A array and VLA+Pie Town configurations, to study changes in the extended (i.e. scale 1 − 10 stellar radii) atmospheres of these stars and to model the conditions in their wind acceleration regions. Strong modelling constraints on the atmospheric thermal properties are derived, because the radio emission is resolved at multiple wavelengths. Changes seen in the α Ori source flux density and radio visibility data occurring on several year timescales are described, based on observations obtained in 2002 February and April and in 1996 December. The need for multicomponent models of the plasma conditions in both the warm and cool gas around α Ori is discussed. The radio properties of the α Sco system, both of the M supergiant itself and in the H II region surrounding the B-type companion, provide important tools for estimating conditions within the M supergiant's wind.

We have used the High Resolution Camera (HRC-I) of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory to search for coronal (T � 10 6 K) emission from the archetype ‘‘ noncoronal ’’ red giants Arcturus (� Bootis=HD 124897, K1 III) and Aldebaran (� Tauri=HD 29139, K5 III). Our program follows up previous detections of ultraviolet coronal proxies such as C iv � 1548 (T � 1 � 10 5 K) and O vi � 1031 (T � 3 � 10 5 K). The deep (� 19 ks) HRC-I pointings obtained a tentative 3 � detection of Arcturus, with fXð0:2 2 keV Þ¼ 1:0 þ1:8 � 0:8 � 10 � 15 ergs cm � 2 s � 1 (95% confidence limits [CLs]), but failed to record Aldebaran, with an upper limit of d1:5 � 10 � 15 ergs cm � 2 s � 1 (also at 95% CL). The corresponding LX=Lbol ratios are a factor of ten thousand less than the Sun, a low-activity coronal dwarf. At the same time, Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph far-ultraviolet spectra suggest the presence of a ‘‘ cool absorber,’’ probably near the base of the red giant chromosphere, imprinting discrete low-excitation absorptions on top of highly ionized features such as Si iv � 1393. The hot emission zones thus are at least partially buried under a large column of chromospheric material, which would severely attenuate any soft X-rays that might be emitted. The submerged hot structures presumably are magnetic because of their high temperatures and broad C iv profiles (FWHM � 130 km s � 1 ). Perhaps these structures are analogous to small-scale ephemeral bipolar regions seen ubiquitously on the Sun throughout the sunspot cycle and thought to be of direct convective origin. If small-scale magnetic fields indeed are present in the lower atmospheres of red giants such as Arcturus and Aldebaran, they might play a role in initiating the cool winds of such stars, perhaps through a mechanism similar to solar spicules. Subject headings: stars: coronae — stars: individual (Aldebaran, Arcturus) — ultraviolet: stars — X-rays: stars

We describe an extensive search with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) for ultraviolet coronal (T > 10 6 K) forbidden lines in a sample of 29 F-M dwarfs, giants, and supergiants. Measuring coronal lines in the 1150-1700 Aband with STIS has important advantages of superior velocity resolution and an absolute wavelength calibration compared with using the Chandra or XMM-Newton grating spectrometers to observe permitted transitions of the same ion stages in the kilovolt X-ray region. Fe xii �� 1242, 1349 (T � 2 � 10 6 K) and Fe xxi � 1354 (10 7 K) are well known from solar studies and have been reported in previous stellar work. A search for other coronal forbidden lines in the 1200-1600 Aregion was largely negative. The few candidate identifications (e.g., Ar xiii � 1330 and Ca xv � 1375) are too faint to be diagnostically useful. We add new dwarfs to the list of Fe xii detections, including the nearby solar twin � Cen A (G2 V). Clear detections of Fe xxi were obtained in dMe stars, active giants, a short-period RS CVn binary, and possibly in active solar-type dwarfs. We developed a semiempirical method for removing the C i blend that partially affects the Fe xxi � 1354 profile. As discussed recently by Johnson et al., Capella (� Aur; G8 III+G1 III) displays clear Fe xxi variability between Goddard High-Resolution Spectograph (GHRS) and STIS observations 4 yr apart, which is apparently due to a substantial decline in the contribution from the G8 primary. We present an alternative model of the GHRS and STIS era profiles using information in the two sets of line shapes jointly, as well as knowledge of the behavior of Fexxi profiles of other late-G '' clump '' giants similar to Capella G8. The full survey sample also provides a context for the apparent variability: the Fe xxi flux of the G8 star in the GHRS spectrum is nearly identical (in LFe XXI=Lbol) to other clump giants of similar LX=Lbol, but it had dropped at least a factor of 6 in the STIS measurement. The He ii � 1640 B� feature—which is thought to be responsive to coronal irradiation—also showed significant changes between the GHRS and STIS epochs, but the decrease in the G8 star was much smaller than Fe xxi. The Fe xii flux displays a correlation with the ROSAT 0.2-2 keV X-ray flux that can be described by an � ¼ 0:5 power law. Fe xxi exhibits a steeper, perhaps linear (� ¼ 1), correlation with the ROSAT flux down to an activity level of LX=Lbol � 10� 5, below which detections of the coronal forbidden line are rare. There is no evidence of large, systematic Doppler shifts in either Fe xii � 1242 or Fe xxi � 1354. This suggests that the emissions arise dominantly in confined structures, analogous to magnetic loops on the Sun, rather than, say, in a hot wind. The Fe xii and Fe xxi line widths generally are close to thermal (FWHM � 40 90 km s � 1 at T � 10 6:2 10 7:0 K), except for the Hertzsprung-gap giants 31 Comae (G0 III) and Capella G1 and the K1 subgiant primary of HR 1099, all of which show evidence for excess broadening in Fe xxi (Fe xii is obscured in these objects by broad N v � 1242 features). If the excess broadening is rotational, it implies that the hot coronae of '' X-ray- deficient '' 31 Com and Capella G1 are highly extended, contrary to the compact structures suggested by recent density estimates in a number of active coronal sources. Subject headings: stars: coronae — ultraviolet: stars — X-rays: stars

The mechanism responsible for driving the ubiquitous winds of cool giant and supergiant stars remains to be established. To this end, we are constructing semi-empirical models of the extended outer atmospheres (‘chromospheres’) and winds of selected red supergiants. These models are constrained by analyses of the UV line spectra of single stars, and of red supergiants in binaries that eclipse their main-sequence companions: the ζ Aur and VV Cep stars. These detached binaries are well-separated, with no evidence of mass transfer. The C II] 2325 Å line profiles of the binaries are similar to those of comparable single stars, suggesting that the chromospheres remain relatively unperturbed by binarity. However, it is unclear how much binarity disturbs the wind: binary observations suggest a gradual acceleration (β ∼ 3), but line profile analyses of single red supergiants imply a rapid acceleration (β < 1). To date, we have obtained extensive series of HST/GHRS and STIS observations of three eclipsing red supergiant binaries: ζ Aur, HR 2554 and VV Cep. In this paper, we focus on ζ Aur, and present observations and modelling results for this eclipsing binary.

Spatially resolved multi-wavelength centimeter continuum observations of cool evolved stars can not only constrain the morphology of the radio emitting regions, but can also directly probe the mean gas temperature at various depths of the star's extended atmosphere. Here, we use the Very Large Array (VLA) in the A configuration with the Pie Town (PT) Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) antenna to spatially resolve the extended atmosphere of Betelgeuse over multiple epochs at 0.7, 1.3, 2.0, 3.5, and 6.1 cm. The extended atmosphere deviates from circular symmetry at all wavelengths while at some epochs we find possible evidence for small pockets of gas significantly cooler than the mean global temperature. We find no evidence for the recently reported e-MERLIN radio hotspots in any of our multi-epoch VLA/PT data, despite having sufficient spatial resolution and sensitivity at short wavelengths, and conclude that these radio hotspots are most likely interferometric artefacts. The mean gas temperature of the extended atmosphere has a typical value of 3000 K at 2 R∗ and decreases to 1800 K at 6 R∗, in broad agreement with the findings of the single epoch study from Lim et al. (1998, Nature, 392, 575). The overall temperature profile of the extended atmosphere between 2 R∗ ≲ r ≲ 6 R∗ can be described by a power law of the form Tgas(r) ∝ r-0.6, with temporal variability of a few 100 K evident at some epochs. Finally, we present over 12 yr of V band photometry, part of which overlaps our multi-epoch radio data. We find a correlation between the fractional flux density variability at V band with most radio wavelengths. This correlation is likely due to shock waves induced by stellar pulsations, which heat the inner atmosphere and ionize the more extended atmosphere through radiative means. Stellar pulsations may play an important role in exciting Betelgeuse's extended atmosphere.

We present high spectral resolution (~3 km/s) observations of the nu_2 ro-vibrational band of H2O in the 6.086--6.135 micron range toward the massive protostar AFGL 2591 using the Echelon-Cross-Echelle Spectrograph (EXES) on the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Ten absorption features are detected in total, with seven caused by transitions in the nu_2 band of H2O, two by transitions in the first vibrationally excited nu_2 band of H2O, and one by a transition in the nu_2 band of H2{18}O. Among the detected transitions is the nu_2 1(1,1)--0(0,0) line which probes the lowest lying rotational level of para-H2O. The stronger transitions appear to be optically thick, but reach maximum absorption at a depth of about 25%, suggesting that the background source is only partially covered by the absorbing gas, or that the absorption arises within the 6 micron emitting photosphere. Assuming a covering fraction of 25%, the H2O column density and rotational temperature that best fit the observed absorption lines are N(H2O)=(1.3+-0.3)*10^{19} cm^{-2} and T=640+-80 K., Comment: 6 pages, 3 figures, 1 table, accepted for publication in ApJL

We report on a Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) spectroscopic observation of the pre–main-sequence star T Tauri, the defining object of pre–main-sequence stars. The FUSE satellite is the only UV instrument currently available that can acquire high-quality spectra between 912 and 1185 A. The spectrum of T Tau was acquired between 2000 January 15 and 16. Serendipitous observing conditions resulted in a very low noise spectrum that allowed the detection of several weak features, including the first detection of H2 Werner-band emission in an extrasolar object.

We present a NASA-DLR SOFIA-Echelon Cross Echelle Spectrograph (EXES) and NASA Infrared Telescope Facility-Texas Echelon Cross Echelle Spectrograph (TEXES) mid-IR R ≃ 50,000 spectral study of forbidden Fe II transitions in the early-type M supergiants, Betelgeuse (α Ori: M2 Iab) and Antares (α Sco: M1 Iab + B3 V). With EXES, we spectrally resolve the ground term [Fe II] 25.99 μm ( a 6DJ= 7/2-9/2: Eup = 540 K) emission from Betelgeuse. We find a small centroid blueshift of 1.9 ± 0.4 km s-1 that is a significant fraction (20%) of the current epoch wind speed, with a FWHM of 14.3 ± 0.1 km s-1. The TEXES observations of [Fe II] 17.94 μm (a 4FJ= - 7/2 9/2: Eup = 3400 K) show a broader FWHM of 19.1 ± 0.2 km s-1, consistent with previous observations, and a small redshift of 1.6 ± 0.6 km s-1 with respect to the adopted stellar center-ofmass velocity of VCoM = 20.9 ± 0.3 km s-1. To produce [Fe II] 25.99 μm blueshifts of 20% wind speed requires that the emission arises closer to the star than existing thermal models for α Ori's circumstellar envelope predict. This implies a more rapid wind cooling to below 500 K within 10R∗ (q∗ = 44 mas, dist = 200 pc) of the star, where the wind has also reached a significant fraction of the maximum wind speed. The line width is consistent with the turbulence in the outflow being close to the hydrogen sound speed. EXES observations of [Fe II] 22.90 μm ( a 4DJ= 5/2-7/2: Eup = 11,700 K) reveal no emission from either star. These findings confirm the dominance of cool plasma in the mixed region where hot chromospheric plasma emits copiously in the UV, and they also constrain the wind heating produced by the poorly understood mechanisms that drive stellar outflows from these low variability and weak-dust signature stars.

Cuntz (1997) suggested that apparent velocity shifts in Fe II emission lines observed in Betelgeuse ( Orionis: M2 Iab) indicate that non-magnetic wave modes are relevant for the heating and dynamics of Ori's chromosphere. This claim was based on the similarity of computed stochastic velocities in 1-D short-period acoustic wave models and velocity shifts in prole ts to Fe II emission lines (Carpenter & Robinson 1997), which is now identied as coincidental. While acoustic waves may indeed be important for the heating and dynamics of Ori's chromosphere, the interpretation of the Fe II emission line proles does not provide evidence for this possibility. The line formation of optically thick scattering lines in an extended outflow makes Fe II emission lines poorly suited as a diagnostic for small-scale structure in hydrodynamical models. Better diagnostics include electron density sensitive, low opacity lines such as C II). In the view of these ndings, we discuss directions of future research.

We have constructed a detailed mean density and temperature model for the extended outer atmosphere of the O-rich supergiant Betelgeuse (??Ori [M2 Iab]), which extends from 1.0 to 10.0 stellar radii. A one-dimensional model is based on fitting NRAO VLA centimeter visibility data, and two-dimensional models are constructed using the intensity contours of the 0.7 cm observations of Lim et al. As one moves in toward the star from about 10 R* the mean electron temperature increases to a value of 3800 K, then declines down below Teff, and then rises to photospheric values. The peak mean model temperature is less than the typical chromospheric temperatures found in previous models. Observations of H? and chromospheric ultraviolet (UV) emission show that higher temperature components must also exist, but they do not dominate the weighted mean temperature structure. We tentatively identify the radius where the temperature distribution peaks (R 1.45 R*) with the dominant chromospheric UV emission region and find an areal filling factor of ?. In the extended semiempirical model the dominant source of electrons is from photoionized metals and is dominated by carbon. The low ionization of hydrogen leads to a dominance by H- (free-free) opacity at centimeter wavelengths. We derive simple estimates of the radio spectral indices for other similar M supergiants. We have constructed two-dimensional models to examine whether the intensity asymmetry observed at 0.7 cm is most likely to result from density or temperature variations. Adopting an elliptical two-dimensional model, a density asymmetry along the axes of symmetry would need to be 20?:?1. If we assume the radial wind velocity is independent of angle the integrated mass-loss rate is only a factor of ~2 greater than that derived from the one-dimensional model. However, previous H? speckle observations that sample the same spatial regions suggest the asymmetry observed at 0.7 cm is not due to such a large-scale density asymmetry. A modest change in temperature can more easily provide the asymmetry, increasing both the opacity and the thermal source term. If the radial density structure is assumed to be the same as in 1992 September, when HST/GHRS spectra were obtained, then the Fe II wind absorption features provide an estimate of the mass-loss rate of 3.1(?1.3) ? 10-6 M? yr-1. This further implies that the cool material dominates the mass of the extended atmosphere and that the radio-emitting region is within the base of the outflow observed in the circumstellar layers. A simple silicate dust model is constructed and the semiempirical model suggests an onset of dust formation at R 33 R* where Tdust ~ 360 K. This region lies outside the semiempirical model but simple extrapolations suggest that at this radius Te ~ 220 K, and the mean hydrogen density nH ~ 3 ? 106 cm-3. We address the difficult question of whether the mean thermal model based on the radio data can be consistent with the observed off-limb H? scattering emission if inhomogeneities are present.

UV spectra of λ Velorum taken with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) on the Hubble Space Telescope are used to probe the structure of the outer atmospheric layers and wind and to estimate the mass-loss rate from this K5 Ib-II supergiant. VLA radio observations at λ = 3.6 cm are used to obtain an independent check on the wind velocity and mass-loss rate inferred from the UV observations. Parameters of the chromospheric structure are estimated from measurements of UV line widths, positions, and fluxes and from the UV continuum flux distribution. The ratios of optically thin C II] emission lines indicate a mean chromospheric electron density of log Ne ≈ 8.9 ± 0.2 cm-3. The profiles of these lines indicate a chromospheric turbulence (v0 ≈ 25-36 km s-1), which greatly exceeds that seen in either the photosphere or wind. The centroids of optically thin emission lines of Fe II and of the emission wings of self-reversed Fe II lines indicate that they are formed in plasma approximately at rest with respect to the photosphere of the star. This suggests that the acceleration of the wind occurs above the chromospheric regions in which these emission line photons are created. The UV continuum detected by the GHRS clearly traces the mean flux-formation temperature as it increases with height in the chromosphere from a well-defined temperature minimum of 3200 K up to about 4600 K. Emission seen in lines of C III] and Si III] provides evidence of material at higher than chromospheric temperatures in the outer atmosphere of this noncoronal star. The photon-scattering wind produces self-reversals in the strong chromospheric emission lines, which allow us to probe the velocity field of the wind. The velocities to which these self-absorptions extend increase with intrinsic line strength, and thus height in the wind, and therefore directly map the wind acceleration. The width and shape of these self-absorptions reflect a wind turbulence of ≈9-21 km s-1. We further characterize the wind by comparing the observations with synthetic profiles generated with the Lamers et al. Sobolev with Exact Integration (SEI) radiative transfer code, assuming simple models of the outer atmospheric structure. These comparisons indicate that the wind in 1994 can be described by a model with a wind acceleration parameter β ~ 0.9, a terminal velocity of 29-33 km s-1, and a mass-loss rate ~ 3 × 10-9 M☉ yr-1. Modeling of the 3.6 cm radio flux observed in 1997 suggests a more slowly accelerating wind (higher β) and/or a higher mass-loss rate than inferred from the UV line profiles. These differences may be due to temporal variations in the wind or from limitations in one or both of the models. The discrepancy is currently under investigation.

The structures of the outer atmospheres of red giants are very complex. The notion of large optically thick molecular spheres around the stars (MOLspheres) has been invoked in order to explain e.g. spectro-interferometric observations. However, high-resolution spectra in the mid-IR do not easily fit into this picture. They rule out any large sphere of water vapour in LTE surrounding red giants. Our aim here is to investigate high-resolution, mid-infrared spectra for a range of red giants, from early-K to mid M. We have recorded 12 microns spectra of 10 well-studied bright red giants, with TEXES on the IRTF. We find that all giants in our study cooler than 4300 K, spanning a range of effective temperatures, show water absorption lines stronger than expected. The strengths of the lines vary smoothly with spectral type. We identify several spectral features in the wavelength region that undoubtedly are formed in the photosphere. From a study of water-line ratios of the stars, we find that the excitation temperatures, in the line-forming regions, are several hundred Kelvin lower than expected from a classical photospheric model. This could either be due to an actually lower temperature structure in the outer regions of the photospheres caused by, for example, extra cooling, or due to non-LTE level populations, affecting the source function and line opacities. We have demonstrated that these diagnostically interesting water lines are a general feature of red giants across spectral types, and we argue for a general explanation of their formation rather than explanations requiring specific properties. Since the water lines are neither weak (filled in by emission) nor appear in emission, as predicted by LTE MOLsphere models in their simplest forms, the evidence for the existence of such large optically-thick, molecular spheres enshrouding the stars is weakened. (abbreviated), Comment: Accepted for publication in A&A

Cool, evolved stars have copious, enriched winds. The structure of these winds and the way they are accelerated is not well known. We need to improve our understanding by studying the dynamics from the pulsating stellar surface to about 10 stellar radii, where radiation pressure on dust is fully effective. Some red supergiants have highly asymmetric nebulae, implicating additional forces. We retrieved ALMA Science Verification data providing images of sub-mm line and continuum emission from VY CMa. This enables us to locate water masers with milli-arcsec precision and resolve the dusty continuum. The 658-, 321- and 325-GHz masers lie in irregular, thick shells at increasing distances from the centre of expansion. For the first time this is confirmed as the stellar position, coinciding with a compact peak offset to the NW of the brightest continuum emission. The maser shells (and dust formation zone) overlap but avoid each other on tens-au scales. Their distribution is broadly consistent with excitation models but the conditions and kinematics appear to be complicated by wind collisions, clumping and asymmetries., Comment: Letter 4 pages, 5 figures plus appendix with 3 figures. Accepted by Astronomy and Astrophysics Letters

Soft X-ray detections of stellar coronae (T ~ 106 K) are rare in the giant branch redward of ~K1 III. We have conducted a less direct—but more sensitive—search using the Hubble Space Telescope Goddard High-Resolution Spectrograph to probe for far-ultraviolet proxies of the hot coronal gas in representative "noncoronal" red giants. In every target so far examined, we find weak but statistically significant Si IV emission, as well as, commonly, C IV and, in some cases, N V. Si IV is not affected by the CNO anomalies produced by the first dredge-up, which can deplete the carbon abundance and weaken C IV. In the low-activity giants, the λ1393 component of the Si IV doublet must be corrected for sharp absorptions, which we believe are caused by carbon monoxide in overlying cool material. The normalized flux ratios ( ≡ f/fbol) of Si IV and X-rays among the "coronal" yellow giants (lying just blueward of the "noncoronal" zone) fall on a uniform track, X ~2Si IV. In the noncoronal zone, however, the Si IV index is nearly constant (Si IV ~10−8), independent of X (which ranges from ~10-8 to 10-10). The mechanism that diminishes X-ray activity in the red giants is highly sensitive to an as yet unidentified stellar property. Photoelectric absorption by cool gas might play a more important role than previously suspected, particularly if hot magnetic loops are partly or completely buried in the chromosphere.

We have obtained ultraviolet spectra of the Herbig Ae star HD104237 using the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) on HST. The high temperature emission and absorption lines show remarkable outflow absorption features, which have very similar profiles that are essentially independent of formation temperature. The profiles are not those expected from a spherically-symmetric stellar wind but have optically-thick absorption to −280 km s−1 and a high velocity plateau extending to −375 km s−1. The profile shape is a manifestation of the nonspherical geometry of the flow. The observed UV emission is too strong to be associated with the hot X–ray emitting plasma seen by ASCA and probably is generated by the interaction of the innermost part of an accretion disk with the corotating outermost magnetospheric field. The outflow is almost certainly the inner part of a biconical disk wind.

We present a full determination of the fundamental stellar and orbital parameters of the eclipsing binary ζ Aurigae (K4 Ib + B5 V) using recent observations with the Hubble Space Telescope Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) and the Mark III long-baseline optical interferometer. The information obtained from spectroscopic and interferometric measurements is complementary, and the combination permits a complete determination of the stellar masses, the absolute semimajor axis of the orbit, and the distance. A complete solution requires that both components be visible spectroscopically, and this has always been difficult for the ζ Aur systems. The ζ Aur K star primary presents no difficulty, and accurate radial velocities are readily obtainable in the optical. However, the B star secondary is more problematic. Ground-based radial velocity measurements are hampered by the difficulty of working with the composite spectrum in the blue-violet region, the small number of suitable lines in the generally featureless optical spectrum of the B star, and the great width of the few available lines (the Balmer lines of hydrogen and a few weak He I lines) due to rapid rotation. We avoid the worst of these problems by using GHRS observations in the ultraviolet, where the K star Flux is negligible and the intrinsic B star spectrum is more distinctive, and obtain the most accurate determination of the B star radial velocity amplitude to date. We also analyze published photometry of previous eclipses and near-eclipse phases of ζ Aur in order to obtain eclipse durations, which fix the length of the eclipse chord and therefore determine the orbit inclination. The long-baseline interferometry (LBI) yields, in conjunction with the spectroscopic solution, the distance to the system and thus the absolute stellar radius of the resolved K supergiant primary star, ζ Aur A. The secondary is not resolved by LBI, but its angular (and absolute) radius is found by Fitting the model stellar flux plus an interstellar extinction model to the flux-calibrated GHRS data. We Find MK = 5.8 ± 0.2 M☉, MB = 4.8 ± 0.2 M☉, RK = 148 ± 3 R☉ and RB = 4.5 ± 0.3 RB for the masses and radii of the ζ Aur stars. We determine the distance to ζ Aur to be 261 ± 3 pc. Additionally, we refine the stellar parameters of the B star secondary presented in the 1995 spectroscopic study of Bennett, Brown, & Linsky. We also determine the effective temperature of the K star primary using values of the bolometric flux, angular diameter, and interstellar extinction derived in this study. The positions of the ζ Aur stars on the theoretical H-R diagram are compared to current evolutionary model tracks, and the resulting good agreement provides a strong check of the internal self-consistency of this analysis and the accuracy of the theoretical models. The ζ Aurigae stars are confirmed to be coeval with an age of 80 ± 15 Myr.

We report radio interferometric observations of the 12C16O 1.3 mm J = 2-1 emission line in the circumstellar envelope of the M supergiant Alpha Ori and have detected and separated both the S1 and S2 flow components for the first time. Observations were made with the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter-wave Astronomy (CARMA) interferometer in the C, D, and E antenna configurations. We obtain good u-v coverage (5-280 klambda) by combining data from all three configurations allowing us to trace spatial scales as small as 0.9\arcsec over a 32\arcsec field of view. The high spectral and spatial resolution C configuration line profile shows that the inner S1 flow has slightly asymmetric outflow velocities ranging from -9.0 km s-1 to +10.6 km s-1 with respect to the stellar rest frame. We find little evidence for the outer S2 flow in this configuration because the majority of this emission has been spatially-filtered (resolved out) by the array. We also report a SOFIA-GREAT CO(J= 12-11) emission line profile which we associate with this inner higher excitation S1 flow. The outer S2 flow appears in the D and E configuration maps and its outflow velocity is found to be in good agreement with high resolution optical spectroscopy of K I obtained at the McDonald Observatory. We image both S1 and S2 in the multi-configuration maps and see a gradual change in the angular size of the emission in the high absolute velocity maps. We assign an outer radius of 4\arcsec to S1 and propose that S2 extends beyond CARMA's field of view (32\arcsec at 1.3 mm) out to a radius of 17\arcsec which is larger than recent single-dish observations have indicated. When azimuthally averaged, the intensity fall-off for both flows is found to be proportional to R^{-1}, where R is the projected radius, indicating optically thin winds with \rho \propto R^{-2}., Comment: 11 pages, 8 figures To be published in the Astronomical Journal (Received 2012 February 10; accepted 2012 May 25)

Detailed models of the chromospheres of the «hybrid» bright giants α TrA (K4 II), ι Aur (K3 II), γ Aql (K3 II) and θ Her (K1 II) are presented. The models run from the base of the chromosphere and into the transition region. The chromospheric models are based on radiative transfer calculations for a range of atoms and emission lines, including : Mg II h and k; Al II] λ2669 A; C II λ1335 A; C II] λ2325 A; Si II λλ1808.0, 1816.9 and 1817.5 A. The transition region models are made using standard emission measure techniques. The presence of steep turbulent velocity gradients leads to profiles of optically thin chromospheric emission lines that are strongly dependent on the distribution of emitting material with temperature

We have detected [Fe II] 17.94 um and 24.52 um emission from a sample of M supergiants using TEXES on the IRTF. These low opacity emission lines are resolved at R = 50, 000 and provide new diagnostics of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the stellar wind acceleration zone. The [Fe II] lines, from the first excited term, are sensitive to the warm plasma where energy is deposited into the extended atmosphere to form the chromosphere and wind outflow. These diagnostics complement previous KAO and ISO observations which were sensitive to the cooler and more extended circumstellar envelopes. The turbulent velocities, Vturb is about 12 to 13 km/s, observed in the [Fe II] forbidden lines are found to be a common property of our sample, and are less than that derived from the hotter chromospheric C II] 2325 Angstrom lines observed in alpha Ori, where Vturb is about 17 to 19 km/s. For the first time, we have dynamically resolved the motions of the dominant cool atmospheric component discovered in alpha Ori from multi-wavelength radio interferometry by Lim et al. (1998). Surprisingly, the emission centroids are quite Gaussian and at rest with respect to the M supergiants. These constraints combined with model calculations of the infrared emission line fluxes for alpha Ori imply that the warm material has a low outflow velocity and is located close to the star. We have also detected narrow [Fe I] 24.04 um emission that confirms that Fe II is the dominant ionization state in alpha Ori's extended atmosphere., 79 pages including 10 figures and 2 appendices. Accepted by ApJ

The present study compares ratios of Si II UV emission lines in a variety of objects with computations based on recently published collisional data of Dufton and Kingston (1991). A high-quality spectrum of Alpha Tau (K5 III) obtained by Carpenter et al. (1991) is analyzed using the G270M mode of the GHRS on the HST, in addition to high-dispersion data from Skylab and IUE. Agreement between observation and theory is satisfactory for most lines. A blend with a line of Ni II accounts partially for the discrepancies and solves a problem with semiforbidden S II emission measures. Disagreement exists between certain observed flux ratios and computed values using recent atomic data for the intersystem lines. The discrepancy is most significant for Alpha Tau. The computed atomic collision strengths within the intersystem multiplet itself are argued as a possible cause of the discrepancy.

Several recent papers have argued for warm, semi-detached, molecular layers surrounding red giant and supergiant stars, a concept known as a MOLsphere. Spectroscopic and interferometric analyses have often corroborated this general picture. Here, we present high-resolution spectroscopic data of pure rotational lines of water vapor at 12 microns for the supergiant mu Cephei. This star has often been used to test the concept of molecular layers around supergiants. Given the prediction of an isothermal, optically thick water-vapor layer in Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium around the star (MOLsphere), we expected the 12 micron lines to be in emission or at least in absorption but filled in by emission from the molecular layer around the star. Our data, however, show the contrary; we find definite absorption. Thus, our data do not easily fit into the suggested isothermal MOLsphere scenario. The 12 micron lines, therefore, put new, strong constraints on the MOLsphere concept and on the nature of water seen in signatures across the spectra of early M supergiants. We also find that the absorption is even stronger than that calculated from a standard, spherically symmetric model photosphere without any surrounding layers. A cool model photosphere, representing cool outer layers is, however, able to reproduce the lines, but this model does not account for water vapor emission at 6 microns. Thus, a unified model for water vapor on mu Cephei appears to be lacking. It does seem necessary to model the underlying photospheres of these supergiants in their whole complexity. The strong water vapor lines clearly reveal inadequacies of classical model atmospheres., Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal