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Although white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are common in captivity, few behavioral studies have been conducted and there is seemingly no research for immersive exhibits where potential for visitor effects is high. Moreover, little information exists on possible effects of weather and temperature on rhino outside their native range. Here we analyze 14,501 observations of rhino in a drive-through enclosure. Data were collected by researchers (n=12,160 datapoints) and keepers (n=2,341 datapoints) over a four-month period. We aimed to: (1) quantify behavior using detailed researcher-collected data and contemporaneous but ad-hoc keeper-collected data; (2) compare datasets statistically; (3) establish effects of visitors, temperature, and weather on behavior; and (4) assess the influence of visitors on similarity of researcher/keeper datasets. Activity budgets were similar to the wild and the single previous study from a traditional (non-drive-through) enclosure. There was some discrepancy in activity budgets between researcher and keeper data due to significant differences in recorded frequency of two rare behaviors (horn rub; social interaction) and two behaviors that could be easily confused (grazing vs standing with head-down): recording of other behaviors matched well. Weather and temperature affected behavior, with rhino becoming more sedentary (- locomotion, grazing; + resting, standing, and sedentary eating of hay) on hot/sunny days compared to cool/wet days. The number of visitor vehicles had a fairly negligible effect but resting was lower on busy days, possibly as vigilance increased. The match between researcher/keeper datasets was lowest when visitor numbers were high, suggesting visitors might affect keeper ability to accurately record behavior.

Palaeoecology involves analysis of fossil and sub-fossil evidence preserved within sediments to understand past species distributions, habitats and ecosystems. However, while palaeoecological research is sometimes made relevant to contemporary ecology, especially to advance understanding of biogeographical theory or inform habitat-based conservation at specific sites, most ecologists do not routinely incorporate palaeoecological evidence into their work. Thus most cross-discipline links are palaeoecology → ecology rather than ecology → palaeoecology. This is likely due to lack of awareness and/or the misnomer that palaeoecology invariably relates to the “distant past” (thousands of years) rather than being applicable to the “recent past” (last ~ 100–200 years). Here, we highlight opportunities for greater integration of palaeoecology within contemporary ecological research, policy, and practice. We identify situations where palaeoecology has been, or could be, used to (1) quantify recent temporal change (e.g. population dynamics; predator–prey cycles); (2) “rewind” to a particular point in ecological time (e.g. setting restoration/rewilding targets; classifying cryptogenic species); (3) understand current ecological processes that are hard to study real-time (e.g. identifying keystone species; detecting ecological tipping points); (4) complement primary data and historical records to bridge knowledge gaps (e.g. informing reintroductions and bioindicator frameworks); (5) disentangle natural and anthropogenic processes (e.g. climate change); and (6) draw palaeoecological analogues (e.g. impacts of pests). We conclude that the possibilities for better uniting ecology and palaeoecology to form an emerging cross-boundary paradigm are as extensive as they are exciting: we urge ecologists to learn from the past and seek opportunities to extend, improve, and strengthen their work using palaeoecological data.

Management and conservation rely on surveys to determine which species are present but some species, such as nocturnal mammals, can be very difficult to detect. Camera trapping, driven transects, and ad hoc records are well-established nocturnal survey methods, but their detection effectiveness has not been tested against known species presence. We tested the effectiveness of these methods with a known assemblage of nocturnal African mammals. We compared camera traps placed at targeted and random locations, driven transects, and informal ad hoc records against one another and the 20 predominately nocturnal medium- and large-sized mammals known to be on site. Species-specific detection patterns, detection curves for each method, and detection effort required per species, were compared to determine the effectiveness of each method. Each of the methods detected at least 60% of known nocturnal mammal species over a 20-month period: driven transects and ad hoc records were the most successful (16/20 80%), followed by targeted camera traps (15/20 75%) and random camera traps (12/20 60%). Jaccard’s Coefficients of Community Similarity peaked at 0.78, showing notable differences in the communities sampled with different methods. There was considerable variation in effort required to detect each species for each method, and the number of species detected with specific levels of effort was also highly variable between methods. We suggest that mixing methods, using different camera placement including use of random locations, and incorporating cost-neutral ad hoc records into formal survey efforts can all greatly increase the overall effectiveness and efficiency of species detection.

The literature addressing the potential for nature and natural environments to reduce stress and improve health outcomes has a relative paucity of work regarding interactions with animals, particularly those that are not domestic pets. The present observational study sought to understand whether a brief encounter with non‐domestic animals might reduce stress and improve well‐being of participants, and whether participants' nature relatedness, and their appraisals of the interaction might influence these changes. Participants (N = 86, mean age = 20.8 years, 81.8% women) took part in a brief wildlife encounter at a UK safari park, walking for approximately 11 min around an enclosure with free‐roaming lemurs. Heart rate, cortisol and measures of mood were taken before and after the encounter to understand whether this activity could reduce biological levels of stress and improve psychological well‐being. There was no decrease in participants’ heart rate after their encounter but there was a statistically significant decrease in salivary cortisol. Measures of mood significantly improved immediately after the encounter. Reductions in cortisol were associated with dimensions of an individual's nature relatedness, as well as aspects of the animal encounter (number of lemurs and lemur proximity). The findings contribute to parallel literature on nature–health relationships, with the addition of factors seemingly driving the interaction (individuals' nature relatedness, and the number and proximity of the animals) providing important contributory information. The present study provides new information on how encounters with nature, particularly those involving animals, may be beneficial for health and well‐being. Critically, this study was carried out in a setting where potential impact of visitors on animals is negligible, thereby demonstrating the potential for creating environments where both human and animal well‐being are maximised. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

We studied the relationship between temperature and the coexistence of great tit Parus major and blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus, breeding in 75 study plots across Europe and North Africa. We expected an advance in laying date and a reduction in clutch size during warmer springs as a general response to climate warming and a delay in laying date and a reduction in clutch size during warmer winters due to density-dependent effects. As expected, as spring temperature increases laying date advances and as winter temperature increases clutch size is reduced in both species. Density of great tit affected the relationship between winter temperature and laying date in great and blue tit. Specifically, as density of great tit increased and temperature in winter increased both species started to reproduce later. Density of blue tit affected the relationship between spring temperature and blue and great tit laying date. Thus, both species start to reproduce earlier with increasing spring temperature as density of blue tit increases, which was not an expected outcome, since we expected that increasing spring temperature should advance laying date, while increasing density should delay it cancelling each other out. Climate warming and its interaction with density affects clutch size of great tits but not of blue tits. As predicted, great tit clutch size is reduced more with density of blue tits as temperature in winter increases. The relationship between spring temperature and density on clutch size of great tits depends on whether the increase is in density of great tit or blue tit. Therefore, an increase in temperature negatively affected the coexistence of blue and great tits differently in both species. Thus, blue tit clutch size was unaffected by the interaction effect of density with temperature, while great tit clutch size was affected in multiple ways by these interactions terms., A. Artemyev acknowledges funding by IB KRC RAS no. 0218-2019-0080 and T. Eeva acknowledges funding by the Academy of Finland (project 265859). This study was funded by research project CGL-2016-79568-C3-3-P (to J. C. Senar), from the Ministry of Economy and Competitivity, Spanish Research Council.

Social media provides unique opportunities for data collection. Retrospective analysis of social media posts has been used in seismology, political science and public risk perception studies but has not been used extensively in ecological research. There is currently no assessment of whether such data are valid and robust in ecological contexts. We used “Twitter mining” methods to search Twitter (a microblogging site) for terms relevant to three nationwide UK ecological phenomena: winged ant emergence; autumnal house spider sightings; and starling murmurations. To determine the extent to which Twitter‐mined data were reliable and suitable for answering specific ecological questions the data so gathered were analysed and the results directly compared to the findings of three published studies based on primary data collected by citizen scientists during the same time period. Twitter‐mined data proved robust for quantifying temporal ecological patterns. There was striking similarity in the temporal patterns of winged ant emergence between previously published work and our analysis of Twitter‐mined data at national scales; this was also the case for house spider sightings. Spatial data were less available but analysis of Twitter‐mined data was able to replicate most spatial findings from all three studies. Baseline ecological findings, such as the sex ratio of house spider sightings, could also be replicated. Where Twitter mining was less successful was answering specific questions and testing hypotheses. Thus, we were unable to determine the influence of microhabitat on winged ants or test predation and weather hypotheses for initiation of murmuration behaviour. Twitter mining clearly has great potential to generate spatiotemporal ecological data and to answer specific ecological questions. However, we found that the types and usefulness of data differed substantially between the three phenomena. Consequently, we suggest that understanding users' behaviour when posting on ecological topics would be useful if using social media is to generate ecological data.

Indicator species can provide invaluable insights into environmental conditions but robust empirical testing of their effectiveness is essential. Ancient woodland indicators (AWIs) are plant species considered indicative of sites that have been continuously wooded for a long period by virtue of poor dispersal ability and intolerance of non-woodland habitats. Many countries now utilise AWI species lists to classify ancient woodlands. Here we use a metastudy approach to test resilience of AWIs to interruptions and persistence following deforestation − and thus the robustness of using AWI lists − using a novel approach. We compare current AWI assemblage with woodland history based on pollen evidence at nine sites across the UK with a robustly-dated and spatially-precise palynological profile. Sites were split into: (1) proven continuous woodland; (2) previously interrupted woodland; and (3) previously but not currently wooded. Vegetation history was >1000 years at most sites. Assessment of ancientness using AWIs agreed with palynologically-proven ancient woodland at two sites, including a species-poor woodland of previously-uncertain age. However, four interrupted woodland sites and three clear-felled sites supported extensive AWI floristic communities. This suggests AWIs are resilient to interruptions, possibly by remaining in the seed bank longer than expected, and persistent following deforestation. Persistence might be due to other species (e.g. heathland plants) acting as pseudo-canopy or because some AWIs are more tolerant of non-woodland locations than previously thought. We conclude that use of floristic AWIs alone in defining ancient woodland should be reviewed, especially where status links to planning policy and conservation prioritisation. We suggest species on AWI lists be reviewed under expert and local guidance and a system of weighting species based on their strict or strong affinity solely with ancient woodland be developed. The use of multi-taxa indicators is recommended to allow stakeholders globally to make informed decisions about ancient woodland status.

The potential influence of visitors on behaviour of captive animals is well known. However, little research on “visitor effects” has also evaluated time of day and weather, which can affect behaviour directly and often also co-vary with visitor numbers. Here, we examine visitor effects on captive ring-tailed lemurs Lemur catta in a walk-through enclosure, where potential for visitor effects is especially high, while specifically considering weather and time of day (between 10:00 hr when lemurs were released into their outdoor enclosure and 16:00 hr when then returned to overnight accommodation). Time, weather and visitor variables interacted in complex ways, but time and weather exerted the strongest effect on behaviour. Weather strongly affected resting, feeding/foraging, and locomotion. Sunbathing was highest in mornings; locomotion increased in afternoons. Visitor numbers were negatively associated with feeding/foraging and sunbathing; visitor activity was positively associated with locomotion and alertness. Crucially, however, “visitor effects” were small both overall and in relation to underlying effects of time/weather. Univariate models suggested visitors accounted for ~20% of behavioural variation; after time/weather had been included this dropped to ~6-8%. We conclude that underlying visitor : time and visitor : weather correlations can lead to overestimation of visitor effects and offer recommendations for future work.

Real-time thermography using the live-view function of a thermal camera has considerable potential to improve surveys of nocturnal wildlife relative to traditional spotlighting, while also decreasing disturbance. However, ability to identify species accurately is paramount. We use video as a proxy for real-time thermography to test African antelope identification accuracy among 34 observers of differing experience. Overall accuracy was 41% but there were substantial species-specific differences (e.g. wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) = 81%; reedbuck (Redunca arundinum) = 12%). Observer experience was significantly positively related to accuracy (inexperienced = 30%; expert = 61%) with experienced observers being better able to use subtle movement and behavioural information to identify animals. However, the effect of experience was inconsistent between species: even experts found some species challenging (e.g. waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) where coat patterning was invisible thermographically). Self-assessed confidence did not correlate with accuracy. Observers who were good at identifying species were also good at assessing group size. We conclude that real-time thermography is not a “magic bullet” and the understanding of species-specific effectiveness is vital. However, for some species and some groups of observers, accuracy can be extremely high (e.g. 100% for expert observers viewing wildebeest). Tailored training is essential for real-time thermography to be a reliable field technique.

Habitat is a key determinant of breeding success in hole-nesting birds. Identifying the factors that influence breeding success is important in understanding nest-site selection behaviour and devising appropriate conservation strategies. This is especially true for declining species like the migratory Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca. Here, I analyse the effect of 24 habitat variables on clutch size, hatching success and fledging success for 137 Pied Flycatcher nests in Gloucestershire, UK, using volunteer-collected data from a 5-year period. More successful nests tended to be located in areas with a lower density of mature trees but abundant saplings. Tree and sapling species richness was also important. Success was positively related to abundance of Oak Quercus robur and Silver Birch Betula pendula and negatively related to Beech Fagus sylvatica, Sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus and Bracken Pteridium aquilinum. Success was lower in boxes facing south-southwest and higher in boxes located on sorter trees. Despite Pied Flycatchers often being regarded as birds of grazed (open) woodland, success was not related directly to grazing. Close proximity to footpaths was associated with significantly lower clutch size, numbers of young to fledge, and percentage success, while close proximity to water was associated with increased success at all stages of breeding. This is a single-site study and the generality of these findings at other sites cannot be assumed without empirical testing. However, the results provide useful additional insight into success-habitat interactions in this species that, to some extent, challenge the general view of Pied Flycatchers, in the UK at least, as grazed woodland specialists.

Many ant species produce winged reproductive males and females that embark on mating flights. Previous research has shown substantial synchrony in flights between colonies and that weather influences phenology but these studies have been limited by sample size and spatiotemporal scale. Using citizen science, we gathered the largest ever dataset (>13,000 observations) on the location and timing of winged ant sightings over a three-year period across a broad spatial scale (the United Kingdom). In total, 88.5% of winged ants sampled were Lasius niger. Observations occurred from June to September with 97% occurring in July/August but exact temporal patterns differed substantially between years. As expected, observations within each year showed a small but significant northward/westward trend as summer progressed. However, the predicted spatiotemporal synchrony was far less apparent; observations were not significantly spatially clustered at national, regional or local scales. Nests in urban (vs. rural) areas and those associated with heat-retaining structures produced winged ants earlier. Local weather conditions rather than broad geographical or seasonal factors were shown to be critical in the timing of winged ant activity, presumably to optimize mate finding and to minimize energy consumption and predation. Temperature and wind speed, but not barometric pressure, were significant predictors of observations (positively and negatively, respectively); winged ants were only observed at temperatures >13 °C and wind-speeds 25°C had observations. Intriguingly, changes in temperature and wind speed from the day before flight peaks were also significant. We conclude that: (1) spatiotemporal synchrony in flights is lower than previously thought for L. niger, (2) local temperature and wind are key predictors of flight phenology; and (3) ants appear able to determine, at least in a limited way, if weather is improving or deteriorating and adjust their behaviour accordingly.\ud Introduction

Accelerated climatic change will alter species’ distributions substantially by the end of the 21st Century and studies modeling distribution change using Climatic Envelope Modeling (CEM) are increasingly crucial for understanding long-term biotic implications of climate change. However, most CEM studies generate either all-species means, which are of limited practical use, or copious species-specific predictions that make it hard to draw general conclusions about those groups most vulnerable. Intermediate analyses that are half way between these two extremes are necessary to establish the relative vulnerability of species to change based on factors that can be related directly to policy and practice, including habitat associations and ecological traits such as endemism and migration status. Here we use species-specific CEM data to analyse changes in geographical distribution, range size, and overlap between current and potential ranges, for all 431 bird species breeding regularly in Europe. Future range sizes are predicted to be 80 % of current range sizes, with an average overlap of 39 %. However, we show that change varies significantly according to habitat, current range size, and endemism status, with no differences according to migration status. Coastal, wetland and upland birds will be significantly worse off under CEM scenarios than birds associated with woodland, farmland and heathland, while urban birds and those using multiple habitats doing best. Birds with small ranges show more severe, and spatially more complex, distribution shifts. The identification of species groups most vulnerable to climate change means that CEM predictions can now be used to inform policy and management, especially where initiatives are based on species grouped according to such variables or where habitat-specific policies are in place.

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