Search

This article follows the work of three international fieldworkers who traveled abroad for the U.S.-based Pathfinder Fund in the 1950s and 1960s to distribute contraceptives, promote the formation of family planning clinics, and support local advocates. These actors situated their work within longer traditions of maternalist humanitarian and Christian missionary internationalism, while also portraying themselves as skilled inter-cultural interlocutors, cognizant of the changing winds prompted by decolonization movements. Still, their insistence on particular methods, reliance on stereotypes, and sometimes aggressive approach fueled tension and undermined their efforts at solidarity. The article thus illustrates some of the central contradictions of post-WWII humanitarianism and the broader entangling of missionary, maternalist, and family planning projects. This article is part of the special theme section on International Organizations in the Era of Decolonization, guest-edited by José Pedro Monteiro.

The phenomenon of mass participation of Soviet women in the Great Patriotic War has no analogues in the history of world wars. Despite this, their contribution to the Victory was not immediately reflected in historiography and is still not sufficiently covered both in encyclopedic publications and in school textbooks, which determines the relevance of our study. The purpose of the work is to trace the development of scientific approaches to the study of the participation of Soviet women in the Great Patriotic War. The author uses methods of historiographic analysis, historiographic synthesis, and periodization. The study led to conclusion that in Soviet historiography the main emphasis was made on the leading role of the party in organizing the military service of women, on their heroism and military merits; works on certain categories of female military personnel did not add up to a complex picture. The only generalizing studies on the problem published during the Soviet period were the works by V.S. Murmantseva, based on archival materials. The turning point of the Soviet historiography was the documentary essay by S.A. Alexievich «War’s Unwomanly Face», where, based on oral history materials, a female perspective on the events of the Great Patriotic War was presented for the first time. At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries, when new scientific directions emerged – military-historical anthropology and military-historical psychology, established by E.S. Senyavskaya, – conditions are being created for deeper and more comprehensive study of the phenomenon of women in war. However, no general work devoted to the frontline everyday life of Soviet women soldiers has yet appeared, which makes the study of this problem promising in contemporary historical science.

Copyright of Tiempos Modernos is the property of Tiempos Modernos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article restores the social and economic status of Tatar women based on documents of Orenburg Mokhammedan Religious Assembly (OMRS), state audit documents, acts of civil status, and journalistic materials of the 19th-early 20th centuries. The Menzelinsk Uyezd had class specifics and was a part of the military (canton) administration. The chronology of the article starts from the late 18th century and continues until the mid–1860s, due to the fact that at the time the state authorities approved certain laws on marriage and family life of Muslims of the Russian Empire: they changed the age of marriage and legalised inter-class marriages, the OMRS began to regulate marital disputes and inheritance cases. The author places the main focus on the marriage and family aspect of private life and includes many archival examples related to the Tatar women of the Menzelinsk Uyezd. Tatar women turned to OMRS when they needed a divorce or permission to remarry, etc. Women were independent subjects of Muslim and civil law, but they always acted with the support of their relatives. Images of Tatar women in the first half of the 19th century presented in publicistic works are a bit static. Russian authors described only the look of a Tatar woman, the cost of her clothes, accessories, etc. The Tatar view was focused on the composition of the woman’s family (to whom she was married, how many children she had). The article presents the biographies of three Tatar women from the Menzelinsy Uyezd: Kurypla Imanaeva, Gulbadar Akhtyamova, and Khasiba Arduanova. Each case illustrates the main trends in everyday life in the first half of the 19th century (military service problems, the cholera epidemic, etc.). The everyday objects played an important role in interpersonal relations and conflicts. At the same time, in the second half of the 19th century, the Tatar society had an ideal of not only a hard-working and religious woman, but also an educated woman.

It is no longer a novelty in Religious Studies that translations play an integral role in questions of (inter-)cultural contact, comparison, and identity. But the question of what translation means, how it relates to interpretation, and the role of text, language, and practice has not been adequately addressed. In recent years, feminist historical research has published some ground-breaking work addressing this very question. This article uses a cross-disciplinary (literature studies, feminist translation studies and religious studies) approach to examine four different Ramayana versions in late colonial Ceylon and India (1900–1930) written by the Theosophists Annie Besant, Marie Musaeus Higgins and Leelawathy Ramanathan for the purpose of girls' education. The differing portrayals of Sita as the "perfect wife" will be used to highlight the importance of theories of translation for the study of global religious history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Pasado y Memoria. Revista de Historia Contemporánea is the property of Pasado y Memoria and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The social institution of the family as an environment for the formation and evolution of gender roles is of particular interest for the study of Soviet society. The government controlled the private sphere of public life even in the late USSR. The media were an important social institution that influenced the construction of ideas about gender and reproduced images of desired models of family relations and the gender structure of society. Gender analysis can be used to identify popular stereotypes about masculinity and femininity, as well as gender family roles in the late USSR. In this paper, the author analyzes the materials of Soviet magazines and newspapers published from the late 1960-ies to the 1970-ies: the magazine for parents and teachers «Family and School», the popular science magazine «Health», the advertising magazine «New goods», the children’s magazines «Murzilka» and «Funny Pictures». These publications are aimed at different readership. This allows us to get a more complete picture of the real and desired models of masculinity and femininity in late Soviet society. As a result of the study, conclusions are drawn about significant discrepancies between the declared equality of women and men in Soviet society and the real gender structure. The representation of stereotypical models of family relations indicates contradictions in the peculiarities of male and female gender socialization, as well as in the gender differentiation of family and household functions of men and women.

This essay compares the professional experiences of Suzanne Chantal and Paola Ojetti in 1930s France and in 1930s and early-1940s Italy, respectively. Beyond their very different political, national, and cultural contexts, these women both occupied central positions within some of the most influential film periodicals of the era: Suzanne Chantal for Cinémonde and Paola Ojetti for Film. This study is mainly based on sources which enable us to take a closer look at their activities, their working conditions, and their feelings regarding the treatment they received while working for these periodicals. Sources include Suzanne Chantal’s memoirs and her personal diaries from the late 1930s, kept by her family, and Paola Ojetti’s extensive working correspondence, preserved in the Fondo Mino Doletti of the Biblioteca Renzo Renzi at the Cineteca di Bologna, as well as other correspondence documents preserved in Italian archives. This paper explores the working trajectories and social positioning made by these two largely forgotten but powerfully significant figures in order to establish themselves in a predominantly male professional and cultural environment, while at the same time questioning the limits of their integration. By shedding light on microhistory and questioning gender issues, this article turns its attention primarily to working practices, women’s paths, and social networks of film press and film criticism history.

This article examines women's demands for political and educational rights in the socio-historical context of women’s exclusion from public life in the years 1913 to 1933. Our goal is to understand how the debate on women’s suffrage and feminism was conducted in the northern Brazilian press of Parahyba in the early twentieth century. The article draws on a study of the newspaper A União, in which fifteen issues from 1913, 1920, 1925, 1930, 1931, and 1933, were found that addressed the issue. The analysis reveals that the debate on feminist ideas was not unanimous, as there were sometimes contradictions between the claims for more schooling, financial independence and political rights and the fear of violating the prevailing norms and ideologies by going beyond the sphere of private life dedicated to the family.

The research is devoted to repatriate Lyudmila Maksimilianovna Abramova (1914-2002) who was born in Harbin, lived in China for 40 years and moved to the USSR during the mass repatriation of the Russian population of Manchuria in the 1950s. Through the fate of Liudmila Abramova the authors attempt to reflect the peculiarities of the life of the emigrants in Northern Manchuria in the interwar period. They include the involvement of young people in fascist organizations, work in the Manchukuo authorities, survival strategies, repatriation motives, adaptation practices of repatriates, gender aspects - such as the role of a politician's wife, the participation of women in public organizations. The appeal to the personalized history is due to the fact that in the history of Russian emigration in Manchuria there are many mythologemes that distort the idea of the life and activities of emigrants. In addition, the authors had to face the problem of reconstructing the biography of a “little” person in the absence of ego documents (memoirs, letters, diaries); therefore, the research task was the use of the anthropological approach, microand macroanalysis, historical-biographical and historical-comparative methods. The article is based on unpublished archival documents involving memoirs and diaries of former Harbin residents and oral history materials.

Introduction Inadequate coverage of transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) health in the UME curriculum contributes to the scarcity of competent physicians to care for TGD patients. Increasing TGD health skills–based curricula in UME can help address TGD health disparities. We developed a standardized patient (SP) case to assess TGD health skills–based competencies and attitudes among medical students. Methods An interdisciplinary team, including individuals with lived TGD experience, developed the SP case that was completed by second-year medical students at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine in January 2020. After the TGD SP session, students and faculty completed a postsession survey to assess the degree to which the case met the learning objectives. Students were assessed via self-reports, faculty reports, and SP video evaluations. Results Seventy second-year medical students, 30 faculty facilitators, and eight SPs participated in 2020. Students reported being significantly more prepared to care for TGD patients (Z = −5.68, p < .001) and to obtain a gender history (Z = −5.82, p < .001). Both faculty and students felt that skills for caring for TGD patients were important in medical education and agreed the case should remain in the curriculum. Discussion The case effectively honed and assessed students’ ability to collect a gender history and discuss goals for hormone therapy with TGD patients. It should complement ongoing curricula to effectively train medical students in TGD health care. Developing these skills in students directly addresses the barriers that many TGD patients experience in health care settings.

This publication reconstructs the biography of N. M. Terekhova (Belonogova) political figure of Omsk social-democratic, a teacher, an active participant in the socio-political movement in Western Siberia. Despite the very significant contribution to the activities of the RSDLP, the biography of this revolutionary is not reflected in historiography, her name was not included in the official Soviet historiography, although many associates, and sometimes opponents in their memoirs mentioned it, even after several decades. In the official press about it, they wrote quite rarely. The basis for the publication is a set of published and unpublished memories, memoirs and materials of the paperwork of the gendarmerie identified in the funds of the historical archive of the Omsk region. According to the results of a study built on a combination of an anthropological approach and the biographical method, the author emphasizes the particular relevance and importance of genealogical practices in the study of regional socio-political history.

Textbooks, the pillars of the school curriculum, trace the study of student classes and represent their educational incipit. In this regard, a question arises: "does the history studied at school take gender relations into account?". Starting from the analysis of a selection of recent history textbooks for high schools, the study attempts to assess, through the analysis of textual and iconographic citations, whether the female figure is present in the new generation of textbooks. Therefore, it is crucial to detect to what extent and in what capacity this figure contributes to the narrative of history studied at school.

This article combines history of the family with women's and gender history and the history of women's education; it is based on an extensive range of archives and aims at highlighting the attitude of society and families towards women who wanted to attend University studies in the beginning of the 20th century. The matter of women's university education is directly related to the emergence of the feminist movement in Greece. The strong preference of female university students for the exact sciences at that time was justified by contemporary scholars as a choice reflecting women's nature. This article highlights the role played by family and social class background. To this effect, the life course of three 'heroines' is followed from their initial desire to undertake further studies to their participation in the social and cultural life of the capital of Greece, as a contribution to current literature on gender studies. Despite the limited number of cases discussed, we strongly believe that these women's upbringing enhances our understanding of women's scientific pursuits and their place in Athenian elite families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the roles of sexuality and gender in conflicts within fifteenth-century Florentine families by analyzing the dispute between Clarice Orsini (the wife of Lorenzo de’ Medici) and Angelo Poliziano in 1479. Historians have generally framed this incident as the inevitable result of irreconcilable differences between a stubborn humanist tutor and a devoutly Catholic mother, but this neglects the unspoken assumptions that Clarice, Poliziano, and their contemporaries would have had about the erotic politics of the situation. This brief episode of Medicean history provides a fascinating case study for the ways in which homosocial relationships could disrupt family life. By analyzing letters and poetry, this paper utilizes the methodologies of emotions history and queer history to problematize current understandings of Renaissance Florentine families and reframe a well-known narrative in Laurentian history.Questo articolo esplora il ruolo che la sessualità e il genere potevano svolgere nei conflitti famigliari della Firenze del Quattrocento prendendo in esame la disputa scoppiata fra Clarice Orsini (moglie di Lorenzo de’ Medici) e Angelo Poliziano nel 1479. Gli storici hanno solitamente interpretato questo incidente come l’inevitabile risultato di inconciliabili differenze fra un testardo precettore umanista e una devota madre cattolica, ma questa prospettiva trascura le inespresse implicazioni erotiche che la situazione comportava per Clarice, Poliziano e i loro contemporanei. Questo breve episodio della storia Medicea costituisce un esempio affascinante dei modi in cui le relazioni omosociali potevano mettere in crisi la vita familiare. Analizzando lettere e poesie, questo articolo utilizza le metodologie della storia delle emozioni e della storia queer per problematizzare la rappresentazione della famiglia del Quattrocento e rivisitare un importante aspetto della predominante narrativa Laurenziana.

Divorce files not only document the negotiation of conflicts between two spouses. They also provide insights into the (often precarious) working conditions of marginalized persons, such as servants. This article examines divorce files from 1800 until 1867 with a special focus on the narratives they contain about maids. The first part of the article addresses the issue of sexual violence against maids. The second and the third part question what consequences sexual intercourse with the masters and a potential pregnancy could have for the maids according to labour law and criminal law. Finally, the article discusses whether the maids had agency in the context of “adultery” with their masters and if they could express their personal perspective in court.

Jahrzehntelangen feministischen Kämpfen, Analysen und Errungenschaften zum Trotz sind Männer und Frauen in Arbeitsmarkt, Beschäftigung oder Sozialversicherung keineswegs gleichgestellt. Der Gender Pay Gap oder die Tatsache, dass insbesondere Frauen von (Alters-)Armut betroffen sind, sind nur einige merkliche Auswirkungen der Geschlechterungleichheit, die auch im 21. Jahrhundert nicht an Wirkmächtigkeit verloren hat. Dieser Band macht sich die Geschichte von Geschlechterhierarchien in Arbeitskontexten zum Gegenstand und stellt sich damit in die lange Tradition frauen- und geschlechterhistorischer Forschungen. Die Beiträge untersuchen, wie Ungleichheit zwischen Männern und Frauen historisch immer wieder neu hergestellt, ausgestaltet und abgesichert wurde. Sie zeigen die vielfältigen Wechselbezüge von Arbeit und Geschlecht auf und analysieren die Verschränkungen mit anderen Differenz- und Ungleichheitskategorien, insbesondere mit Stand/Klasse. Dabei stellen die Autor*innen Akteur*innen in den Mittelpunkt ihres Interesses, die an der Durchsetzung von Hierarchien oder an stillen oder lautstarken Protesten um deren Beseitigung beteiligt waren. Die Protagonistinnen der Beiträge sind meist weibliche Arbeitskräfte, die sich ihren Lebensunterhalt vielfach unter äußerst prekären Umständen organisierten. Damit schreiben die Aufsätze die Geschlechtergeschichte von Ungleichheit, Diskriminierung und Prekarität, aber auch von Handlungsmacht und Eigensinn in Arbeitsverhältnissen fort.

This essay employs a broad historical approach to complexify common narratives around the treatment of queer people within the early Soviet Union. By examining how structures of control surrounding, and competing conceptions of, factors such as modernity, sexuality, race, location and gender intersect, it challenges notions of a decline from liberatory post-revolutionary policy into oppressive Stalinist policy. It also reveals a more nuanced picture of the treatment of queer people in the Soviet Union, one which highlights the variety of ways in which queer expression was legalised, medicalised, and criminalised, and the resulting plurality of queer experience during this period. As an essay centred on the experiences of queer people, it also serves to prevent the all too common erasure of queer people from historical narratives, which is essential to creating a nuanced historical tradition that itself challenges misconceptions of the nature and existence of queer people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ciencia Política is the property of Universidad Nacional de Colombia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The authors address working class women’s activism in socialist Yugoslavia, focusing on archives produced at both factory and municipal levels by local društva žena or aktivi žena (women’s societies/sections) in the industrial town of Varaždin, Croatia. Their critical exploration of archival sources produced between the mid-1950s and the late 1980s has enabled the authors to challenge dominant interpretations of women’s activism during state socialism, particularly the idea that no relevant activism existed after the dissolution of the Antifascist Women’s Front (AFŽ) in 1953. To counter that view the authors highlight the continuities between the AFŽ and subsequent women’s organizations, the Union of Women’s Societies (SŽD) and the Conference for the Social Activity of Women (KDAŽ), in terms both of discursive narratives and of biographical trajectories. They argue that local archival collections provide new and differentiated insights into past gender and labour conflicts and into working class women’s activism.

The authors study the institutionalization of midwife specialization among women in Russia in the period from the 18th through the early 20th centuries. The main sources are legislative acts, clerical documents, as well as reports on the activities of medical institutions and maternity departments. The authors use the approaches of gender history, and the concept of professionalization as developed by E. Freidson. Midwifery was the first area of womens work that was officially recognized by the state. There were three main stages on the way to professionalizing the midwifery profession among women. The first stage (covering the 18th century) is associated with attempts to study and systematize the activities of midwives. The practical experience of midwifes was actively sought by doctors whose theoretical knowledge was limited. The second stage of professionalization (corresponding to the first half of the 19th century) was associated with the normative regulation of midwife work and the formation of a professional hierarchy in midwifery. The third stage (comprising the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century) saw a restriction of the midwives spheres of activity, as well as the active inclusion of male doctors in practical obstetrics and their rise to a dominant position. With the development of obstetric specialization, operative obstetrics, and the opening of maternity wards, midwives were relegated to a subordinate position in relation to doctors. In contrast to the United States and Western European countries, Russia did not have professional associations of midwives. Intra-professional communication was weak, and there was no corporate solidarity. In Soviet medicine, finally, the midwives subordinate place in relation to doctors was only cemented.

This paper analyzes basic theoretical notions of the oppression of women, class inequality, women’s history, and gender history discussed in the study named Dugi ženski marš. Položaj radnica i ženski aktivizam u Hrvatskoj između dvaju svjetskih ratova authored by a croatian historian Ana Rajković (2021). What is more, the paper examines the role of these assessments in creating the historiographical narrative as a whole. The study by Ana Rajković is an innovative synthesis of various insights about women’s history in both the labour and feminist movement in Yugoslavia in the interwar period. Furthermore, the study provides possibilities for (re)interpretation of these insights in the context of women’s contemporary social and intellectual history. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to re-examine the theoretical and methodological differences between contemporary historiography, of which Ana Rajković is a representative, and seminal historical syntheses in Yugoslavia after the Second World War, whose main focus was also on female members of the communist movement and their activity in the interwar period.

“…the Maid was Sent Away Before She Had Given Birth.“ Narratives about Maids in Divorce Records Between 1800 and 1867. Divorce files not only document the negotiation of conflicts between two spouses. They also provide insights into the (often precarious) working conditions of marginalized persons, such as servants. This article examines divorce files from 1800 until 1867 with a special focus on the narratives they contain about maids. The first part of the article addresses the issue of sexual violence against maids. The second and the third part question what consequences sexual intercourse with the masters and a potential pregnancy could have for the maids according to labour law and criminal law. Finally, the article discusses whether the maids had agency in the context of “adultery” with their masters and if they could express their personal perspective in court. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the analysis of the historiography of childhood in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. Among the factors that influenced the emergence of studies on childhood history, there was primarily the high popularity of psychoanalysis and the theory of cognitive development of Jean Piaget. In addition, a new generation of historians of the 1960s and 70s began to study the history and life experience of people who were previously excluded from historical research: children, women, ethnic groups, migrants, peasants and workers. Finally, with the development of computer technology, historians have a good opportunity to model demographic processes, which included not only adults, but also children. Since the middle of the 20th century, studies of childhood history began to form two main directions of historical thought. The first is presented by the French scientist Philippe Aries and his followers. The first direction of researchers is characterized by the idea that during the Middle Ages children were not distinguished from adults, and childhood was a single and inseparable stage of life. The main arguments are the lack of appropriate age concepts in the language and visual sources on which children are presented in the form of «young adults». The changes that occurred in the awareness of the phenomenon of childhood were imagined as a continuous movement in an ascending line, from the «dark ages» towards modern humanistic ideas. Subsequent historians criticized similar views because they relied mainly on the narrow source base of the late Middle Ages and Early Modern times. A more thoughtful analysis of the sources, notes B. Hanawalt, makes it possible to criticize the allegations of Aries and his supporters. The theme of «human ages» was very popular in the Middle Ages, and the periods of childhood and adolescence can be found in scientific and artistic works of the time, as well as visual sources.

The article is devoted to the reconstruction of the daily life of female workers of the Ishim shoe factory No. 4 during the Great Patriotic War. To study the everyday life of women during the war years, the office documents of the factory and local authorities, as well as documents of personal origin, are used. The study is based on a historical and anthropological approach to the past. Descriptive method and oral history method are applied. The author comes to the conclusion that thanks to the efforts of women, who were the main labor force of the factory, in a short time the evacuated enterprise not only began to function in a new place, but also became a model for other enterprises of the Ishim region. The women not only over fulfilled the plan for sewing shoes, but also fully met the production needs of the enterprise: they prepared peat and firewood organized vegetable gardens and stored vegetables for the factory canteen. In addition, women were actively involved in social work taking care of the evacuees, collecting money, food and warm clothes for the needs of the front. Along with the development of new social roles by women, they retained their traditional responsibilities related to maintaining a home and raising children. Similar transformations in the social behavior of women occurred against the background of a deterioration in living conditions, a reduction in living standards, a lack of nutrition, and complications of the epidemiological situation. With the complication of her social roles, a woman during the war years carried an important social function associated with the creation of a special spiritual atmosphere, simultaneously reconciling with the brutal military reality and maintaining the hope of a return to peacetime

The article highlights the ways of resolving family conflicts nobles and peasants in the first third of the XIX century in the Russian Empire, against the background of the ongoing systematization of legislation. Based on examination of the letters and memoirs of the nobles and peasants we highlighted the methods, which are actually used to solve family conflicts. I conclude that nobles and peasants rarely used help of the state in resolving family conflicts. The sphere of family relations was sacred for these estates; therefore, they did not rope the authorities into family conflicts. I have identified the following ways to resolve family conflicts: duel; marriage, often in the form of a secret wedding; going to the monastery and punishing the unfaithful wife; different approaches to raising children by peasants and nobles. The author of the article pays attention to passivity of the peasants in resolving their family conflicts. The results of the study allow exploring the alternative ways of resolving family conflicts based on representatives of other classes of Russian society in the first third of the 19th century (clergy, merchants, philistines, foreigners) as well, using wider range of sources (journalism, normative acts, fiction, paperwork). This analysis contributes to the discussion about the limits of the government intervention into family affairs. The author of the article redlines that people did not trust the law and resorted to the personally legitimate sources of dealing with family conflicts. This conclusion presents a new perspective in the discussion of legal nihilism and real application of the law in life

In the early modern period, the representation of the continents by means of allegorical figures enjoyed great popularity. The book Bodies and Maps: Early Modern Personifications of the Continents, edited by Maryanne Cline Horowitz and Louise Arizzoli, is very stimulating, richly documented and fundamental with regard to the detailed source-critical examination of concrete individual visualisations of the continents. The focus of the book rather lies with the 16th century, while part 5 focuses on the 18th century. In the 18th century, continent allegories entered into the public sphere and reached broader strata in the society. In this century, Eurocentrism progressed considerably, but did not invent it. The volume’s co-authors pose the question of Eurocentrism as well as that of racism with regard to the late Middle Ages and the 16th century. Because of their widespread use, continent allegories can be counted among the most important primary sources from which we can draw conclusions about how extra-European cultures could be represented, interpreted and viewed from a European perspective. They represent much more than just an art-historical source, they are, especially when one thinks of their accessibility in public spaces for everyone, actually a historical source of the first rank, behind which not least travelogues and theoretical concepts such as the history of civilisation as a universal history compete with the Christian history of salvation in the Bible.