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Enhancer binding proteins (EBPs) control the temporal expressions of fruiting body development-associated genes in Myxococcus xanthus. Eleven previously uncharacterised EBP genes were inactivated. Six EBP gene mutations produced minor but reproducible defects in fruiting body development. One EBP gene mutation that affected A-motility produced strong development defects. doi: 10.1128/JB.01019-09

Changes in gene expression are important for the landmark morphological events that occur during Myxococcus xanthus fruiting body development. Enhancer binding proteins (EBPs), which are transcriptional activators, play prominent roles in the coordinated expression of developmental genes. A mutation in the EBP gene nla4 affects the timing of fruiting body formation, the morphology of mature fruiting bodies, and the efficiency of sporulation. In this study, we showed that the nla4 mutant accumulates relatively low levels of the stringent nucleotide ppGpp. We also found that the nla4 mutant is defective for early developmental events and for vegetative growth, phenotypes that are consistent with a deficiency in ppGpp accumulation. Further studies revealed that nla4 cells produce relatively low levels of GTP, a precursor of RelA-dependent synthesis of (p)ppGpp. In addition, the normal expression patterns of all stringent response-associated genes tested, including the M. xanthus ppGpp synthetase gene relA, are altered in nla4 mutant cells. These findings indicate that Nla4 is part of regulatory pathway that is important for mounting a stringent response and for initiating fruiting body development.

Expression of dev genes is important for triggering spore differentiation inside Myxococcus xanthus fruiting bodies. DNA sequence analysis suggested that dev and cas (CRISPR-associated) genes are cotranscribed at the dev locus, which is adjacent to CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats). Analysis of RNA from developing M. xanthus confirmed that dev and cas genes are cotranscribed with a short upstream gene and at least two repeats of the downstream CRISPR, forming the dev operon. The operon is subject to strong, negative autoregulation during development by DevS. The dev promoter was identified. Its -35 and -10 regions resemble those recognized by M. xanthus [[sigma].sup.A] RNA polymerase, the homolog of Escherichia coli [[sigma].sup.70], but the spacer may be too long (20 bp); there is very little expression during growth. Induction during development relies on at least two positive regulatory elements located in the coding region of the next gene upstream. At least two positive regulatory elements and one negative element lie downstream of the dev promoter, such that the region controlling dev expression spans more than 1 kb. The results of testing different fragments for dev promoter activity in wild-type and devS mutant backgrounds strongly suggest that upstream and downstream regulatory elements interact functionally. Strikingly, the 37-bp sequence between the two CRISPR repeats that, minimally, are cotranscribed with dev and cas genes exactly matches a sequence in the bacteriophage Mx8 intP gene, which encodes a form of the integrase needed for lysogenization of M. xanthus. doi:10.1128/JB.00187-07

Myxococcus xanthus is a soil-dwelling, gram-negative bacterium that during nutrient deprivation is capable of undergoing morphogenesis from a vegetative rod to a spherical, stress-resistant spore inside a domed-shaped, multicellular fruiting body. To identify proteins required for building stress-resistant M. xanthus spores, we compared the proteome of liquid-grown vegetative cells with the proteome of mature fruiting body spores. Two proteins, protein S and protein S1, were differentially expressed in spores, as has been reported previously. In addition, we identified three previously uncharacterized proteins that are differentially expressed in spores and that exhibit no homology to known proteins. The genes encoding these three novel major spore proteins (mspA, mspB, and mspC) were inactivated by insertion mutagenesis, and the development of the resulting mutant strains was characterized. All three mutants were capable of aggregating, but for two of the strains the resulting fruiting bodies remained flattened mounds of cells. The most pronounced structural defect of spores produced by all three mutants was an altered cortex layer. We found that mspA and mspB mutant spores were more sensitive specifically to heat and sodium dodecyl sulfate than wild-type spores, while mspC mutant spores were more sensitive to all stress treatments examined. Hence, the products of mspA, mspB, and mspC play significant roles in morphogenesis of M. xanthus spores and in the ability of spores to survive environmental stress.

CbgA plays a role in cortex formation and the acquisition of a subset of stress resistance properties in Myxococcus xanthus spores. The cbgA mutant produces spores with thin or no cortex layers, and these spores are more sensitive to heat and sodium dodecyl sulfate than their wild-type counterparts.

NtrC-like activators regulate the transcription of a wide variety of adaptive genes in bacteria. Previously, we demonstrated that a mutation in the ntrC-like activator gene nla18 causes defects in fruiting body development in Myxococcus xanthus. In this report, we describe the effect that nla18 inactivation has on gene expression patterns during development and vegetative growth. Gene expression in nla18 mutant cells is altered in the early stages of fruiting body development. Furthermore, nla18 mutant cells are defective for two of the earliest events in development, production of the intracellular starvation signal ppGpp and production of A-signal. Taken together, these results indicate that the developmental program in nla18 mutant cells goes awry very early. Inactivation of nla18 also causes a dramatic decrease in the vegetative growth rate of M. xanthus cells. DNA microarray analysis revealed that the vegetative expression patterns of more than 700 genes are altered in nla18 mutant cells. Genes coding for putative membrane and membrane-associated proteins are among the largest classes of genes whose expression is altered by nla18 inactivation. This result is supported by our findings that the profiles of membrane proteins isolated from vegetative nla18 mutant and wild-type cells are noticeably different. In addition to genes that code for putative membrane proteins, nla18 inactivation affects the expression of many genes that are likely to be important for protein synthesis and gene regulation. Our data are consistent with a model in which Nla18 controls vegetative growth and development by activating the expression of genes involved in gene regulation, translation, and membrane structure.

The dif operon is essential for fruiting body formation, fibril (exopolysaccharide) production and social motility of Myxococcus xanthus. The dif locus contains a gene cluster homologous to chemotaxis genes such as mcp (difA), che W (difC), che Y (difD), cheA (difE) and cheC (difF), as well as an unknown ORF called difB. This study used yeast two-hybrid analysis to investigate possible interactions between Dif proteins, and determined that DifA, C, D and E interact in a similar fashion to chemotaxis proteins of Escherichia coil and Bacillus subtilis. It also showed that DifF interacted with DifD, and that the novel protein DifB did not interact with Dif proteins. Furthermore, DifA--F proteins were used to determine other possible protein--protein interactions in the M. xanthus genomic library. The authors not only confirmed the specific interactions among known Dif proteins, but also discovered two novel interactions between DifE and Nla19, and DifB and YidC, providing some new information about the Dif signalling pathway. Based on these findings, a model for the Dif signalling pathway is proposed.

The modification of metabolic pathways to allow for a dormant lifestyle appears to be an important feature for the survival of pathogenic bacteria within their host. One regulatory mechanism for persistent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections is the stringent response. In this study, we analyze the stringent response of a nonpathogenic, saprophytic mycobacterial species, Mycobacterium smegmatis. The use of M. smegmatis as a tool for studying the mycobacterial stringent response was demonstrated by measuring the expression of two M. tuberculosis genes, hspX and eis, in M. smegmatis in the presence and absence of [rel.sub.Msm]. The stringent response plays a role in M. smegmatis cellular and colony formation that is suggestive of changes in the bacterial cell wall structure.

Myxococcus xanthus is a gliding bacterium that possesses two motility systems, the adventurous (A-motility) and social (S-motility) systems. A-motility is used for individual cell gliding, while S-motility is used for gliding in multicellular groups. Video microscopy studies showed that nla24 cells are non-motile on agar surfaces, suggesting that the nla24 gene product is absolutely required for both A-motility and S-motility under these assay conditions. S-motility requires functional type IV pill, wild-type LPS O-antigen, and an extracellular matrix of exopolysaccharide (EPS) and protein called fibrils. The results of expression studies and tethering assays indicate that the nla24 mutant has functional type IV pill. The nla24 mutant also produces wild-type LPS. However, several lines of evidence suggest that the nla24 mutant is defective for production of the EPS portion of the fibril matrix. The nla24 mutant is also defective for transcription of two genes (aglU and cglB) known to be required for A-motility, which is consistent with the idea that nla24 cells are defective for A-motility. Based on these findings, it is proposed that the putative transcriptional activator Nla24 regulates a subset of genes that are important for A-motility and S-motility in M. xanthus.

Expression of the previously reported Tn5lac [OMEGA]4469 insertion in Myxococcus xanthus cells is regulated by the starvation response. Interested in learning more about the starvation response, we cloned and sequenced the region containing the insertion. Our analysis shows that the gene fusion is located in an open reading frame that we have designated nsd (nutrient sensing/utilizing defective) and that its expression is driven by a [[sigma].sup.70]-like promoter. Sequence analysis of the nsd gene product provides no information on the potential structure or function of the encoded protein. In a further effort to learn about the role of nsd in the starvation response, we closely examined the phenotype of cells carrying the nsd::Tn5lac [OMEGA]14469 mutation. Our analysis showed that these cells initiate development on medium that contains nutrients sufficient to sustain vegetative growth of wild-type cells. Furthermore, in liquid media these same nutrient concentrations elicit a severe impairment of growth of nsd cells. The data suggest that the nsd cells launch a starvation response when there are enough nutrients to prevent one. In support of this hypothesis, we found that, when grown in these nutrient concentrations, nsd cells accumulate guanosine tetraphosphate, the cellular starvation signal. Therefore, we propose that nsd is used by cells to respond to available nutrient levels.

The multicellular developmental cycle of Myxococcus xanthus requires large-scale changes in gene transcription, and recent findings indicate that NtrC-like activators play a prominent role in regulating these changes. In this study, we made insertions in 28 uncharacterized ntrC-like activator (nla) genes and found that eight of these insertions cause developmental defects. Hence, these results are consistent with the idea that M. xanthus uses a series of different NtrC-like activators during fruiting body development. Four of the eight developmental mutants we identified have motility defects. The nlal, nla19, and nla23 mutants show S-motility defects, while the nla24 mutant shows defects in both S-motility and A-motility. During development, aggregation of the nlal, nla19, and nla23 mutants is delayed slightly and the nla24 mutant shows no signs of aggregation or sporulation. The nla4, nla6, nla18, and nla28 mutants have no appreciable loss in motility, but they fail to aggregate and to sporulate normally. The nla18 mutant belongs to a special class of developmental mutants whose defects can be rescued when they are codeveloped with wild-type cells, suggesting that nla18 fails to produce a cell-cell signal required for development. The three remaining activator mutants, nla4, nla6, and nla28, appear to have complex developmental phenotypes that include deficiencies in cell-cell developmental signals.

Research has been conducted on the Myxococcus xanthus developmental cycle. The developmental expression of the asgE gene in the wild-type cells and in mutants lacking the critical components of the M. xanthus developmental cycle has been investigated and the results are presented.

A study was conducted to examine the influence of sde expression on the development program of Myxococcus xanthus cells supporting Tn5lac insertion. Plasmids were determined in escherichia coli DH5-alpha or JM101 while M. xanthus strains were prepared at 32 degrees Centrigrade in CTT broth. Results indicated that SdeK could support a signal transduction passageway needed to activate and propagate the early development program of M. xanthus cells.

The extragenic suppressors of 31 dominant, plasmid-borne alleles of motA from Escherichia coli were determined to study the interactions among the MotA and MotB proteins within the flagellar motor. Findings indicated that residues 136 to 138 of MotB may interact directly with the periplasmic face of MotA or help position the N-terminal membrane-spanning helix of MotB properly to interact with the membrane-spanning helices of the MotA proton channel.

Myxococcus xanthus copes with starvation by producing fruiting bodies filled with dormant and stress-resistant spores. Here, we aimed to better define the gene regulatory network associated with Nla28, a transcriptional activator/enhancer binding protein (EBP) and a key regulator of the early starvation response. Previous work showed that Nla28 directly regulates EBP genes that are important for fruiting body development. However, the Nla28 regulatory network is likely to be much larger because hundreds of starvation-induced genes are downregulated in a nla28 mutant strain. To identify candidates for direct Nla28-mediated transcription, we analyzed the downregulated genes using a bioinformatics approach. Nine potential Nla28 target promoters (29 genes) were discovered. The results of in vitro promoter binding assays, coupled with in vitro and in vivo mutational analyses, suggested that the nine promoters along with three previously identified EBP gene promoters were indeed in vivo targets of Nla28. These results also suggested that Nla28 used tandem, imperfect repeats of an 8-bp sequence for promoter binding. Interestingly, eight of the new Nla28 target promoters were predicted to be intragenic. Based on mutational analyses, the newly identified Nla28 target loci contained at least one gene that was important for starvation-induced development. Most of these loci contained genes predicted to be involved in metabolic or defense-related functions. Using the consensus Nla28 binding sequence, bioinformatics, and expression profiling, 58 additional promoters and 102 genes were tagged as potential Nla28 targets. Among these putative Nla28 targets, functions, such as regulatory, metabolic, and cell envelope biogenesis, were assigned to many genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response regulator Nla28 is a key component in a cascade of transcriptional activators that modulates expression of many important developmental genes in Myxococcus xanthus. In this study, we identified and characterized Nla28S, a histidine kinase that modulates the activity of this important regulator of M. xanthus developmental genes. We show that the putative cytoplasmic domain of Nla28S has the in vitro biochemical properties of a histidine kinase protein: it hydrolyzes ATP and undergoes ATP-dependent autophosphorylation that is acid labile and base stable. We also show that the putative cytoplasmic domain Nla28S transfers a phosphoryl group to Nla28 in vitro, that the phosphotransfer is specific, and that a substitution in the predicted site of Nla28 phosphorylation (aspartate 53) abolishes the phosphotransfer reaction. In phenotypic studies, we found that a mutation in nla28S produces a developmental phenotype similar to, but weaker than, that produced by a mutation in nla28; both mutations primarily affect sporulation. Together, these data indicate that Nla28S is the in vivo histidine kinase partner of Nla28 and that the primary function of the Nla28S/Nla28 two-component signal transduction system is to regulate sporulation genes. The results of genetic studies suggest that phosphorylation of Nla28S is important for the in vivo sporulation function of the Nla28S/Nla28 two-component system. In addition, the quorum signal known as A-signal is important for full developmental expression of the nla28S-nla28 operon, suggesting that quorum signaling regulates the availability of the Nla28S/Nla28 signal transduction circuit in developing cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Clp/Hsp100 proteins are chaperones that play a role in protein degradation and reactivation. In bacteria, they exhibit a high degree of pleiotropy, affecting both individual and multicellular phenotypes. In this article, we present the first characterization of a Clp/Hsp100 homolog in Myxococcus xanthus (MXAN_4832 gene locus). Deletion of MXAN_4832 causes defects in both swarming and aggregation related to cell motility and the production of fibrils, which are an important component of the extracellular matrix of a swarm. The deletion also affects the formation of myxospores during development, causing them to become sensitive to heat. The protein product of MXAN_4832 can act as a chaperone in vitro, providing biochemical evidence in support of our hypothesis that MXAN_4832 is a functional Clp/Hsp100 homolog. There are a total of 12 Clp/Hsp100 homoiogs in M. xanthus, including MXAN_4832, and, based on its mutational and biochemical characterization, they may well represent an important group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When starved for nutrients, Myxococcus xanthus produces a biofilm that contains a mat of rod-shaped cells, known as peripheral rods, and aerial structures called fruiting bodies, which house thousands of dormant and stress-resistant spherical spores. Because rod-shaped cells differentiate into spherical, stress-resistant spores and spore differentiation occurs only in nascent fruiting bodies, many genes and multiple levels of regulation are required. Over the past 2 decades, many regulators of the temporal and spatial expression of M. xanthus sporulation genes have been uncovered. Of these sporulation gene regulators, two-component signal transduction circuits, which typically contain a histidine kinase sensor protein and a transcriptional regulator known as response regulator, are among the best characterized. In this review, we discuss prototypical two-component systems (Nla6S/Nla6 and Nla28S/Nla28) that regulate an early, preaggregation phase of sporulation gene expression during fruiting body development. We also discuss orphan response regulators (ActB and FruA) that regulate a later phase of sporulation gene expression, which begins during the aggregation stage of fruiting body development. In addition, we summarize the research on a complex two-component system (Esp) that is important for the spatial regulation of sporulation., (Copyright © 2016, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.)