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This bibliography was developed for the use of researchers and practitioners in the area of individual differences, learning and instruction. It is not exhaustive, given the enormous amount of writing on the topic, but hopefully it contains a useful selection of the work in this area. (Author)

This experiment tested the hypothesis that paired-associate learning accompanied by high arousal should lead to stronger permanent memory and weaker immediate memory than paired-associate learning accompanied by low arousal. During continuous recording of skin resistance and heart rate as measures of arousal, 32 Ss were given a one-trial, eight-item paired-associate task consisting of 0% association value nonsense syllables as stimulus terms and the digits 2 to 9 as response terms. The Ss were tested for recall following either a 2.87-min. or 24-hr. interval. The skin resistance was used as a measure of arousal, the results confirmed the hypothesis. Arousal level as defined by heart rate, however, showed no significant effects on retention. The manipulation of arousal was undertaken through the use of 75 db. white noise as has been done in previous experiments. The present research failed to show any significant effects of white noise during learning on either recall or physiological measures. (Author)

The research paradigm of Farley and Manske on individual differences in the orienting response (OR) defined by heart rate (HR) deceleration was extended to performance in reading readiness tasks. The OR was measured in 114 kindergarteners. Fifteen trials of pure tone stimulation (1000 cps, 61 db) followed by a 16th trial at 2000 cps and a light-off stimulus were presented. The ORs to the initial, 16th and light-off trials were used in the analysis. A baseline-free measure of HR deceleration was employed. Reading-related tasks were the Metropolitan Readiness Tests and the de Hirsch battery. Principal components solution and normal varimax rotation indicated some contribution of the OR to the reading related tasks, though this was markedly moderated by sex. (Author)

Evidence has accumulated indicating that high arousal or activation facilitates long-term retention (LTR) but depresses short-term retention (STR) relative to low activation in list learning. The present study extended this research to the learning and retention of text by children. It specifically investigated the effects of questions inserted into prose material on STR and LTR. Two hundred and ninety third to sixth grade students read two passages. Subjects were randomly assigned to conditions and answered questions inserted in both, either, or neither passage. Grades five through six read more complex versions of the passages. Subjects completed a 25-item multiple-choice retention test immediately (STR) and one week later (LTR). An ANOVA and post-hoc pair-wise comparisons revealed the group answering questions in both passages scored significantly higher on both STR and LTR than controls, indicating a facilitative effect of adjunct questions. A text complexity and learner strata interaction was suggested. The complexity of such activation research with text was discussed in terms of the conditions of testing and the nature of questions. (Author)

Various reported measures of clustering in free recall are reviewed under categories of algebraic versus probabilistic approaches. Shortcomings in these measures are outlined and a new multi-dimensional measure is advanced which overcomes many of the deficiencies noted. (Author)

Reminiscence, or an increase in retention scores from a short-to-long-term retention test, has been shown in some previous work to be a significant function of arousal. Previous studies of the effects of color versus black-and-white audiovisual presentations have generally used film or television and have found no facilitating effect of color on learning or achievement. No such studies, however, have specifically studied reminiscence, although there is reason to believe that color would be more arousing than black-and-white and thus should facilitate reminiscence. The present experiment examined reminiscence over one week as a function of color versus black-and-white slide-tape presentations. It was found that the proportion of subjects reminiscing in the color condition was significantly greater (p.05, one-tailed test) than the proportion reminiscing in the black-and-white condition. No contribution of a measure of individual differences in arousal or stimulation seeking was obtained. The relative lack of strength of the color effect was noted, and some design considerations for further research on learning and memory effects of color were outlined. (Author/MC)

The effects on short- and long-term recall of words varying in arousal value inserted into prose were studied in 720 fifth-grade children. A 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 design was used consisting of two levels of word arousal value (high and low), two retention intervals (immediate and one week), two directions of the to-be-recalled words from the inserted arousal words (preceding or following the arousal words), and three distances of the to-be-recalled words from the inserted arousal words (one, three, or five words distant). Results were analyzed according to three error types: extralist, intralist, and omissions. No main effect of arousal or interaction with retention interval was obtained. The extralist error analysis revealed that high-arousal words significantly facilitated performance in a forward direction and inhibited or impaired it in a backward direction relative to the effects of the low-arousal words, which inhibited or impaired performance in a forward direction and facilitated it in a backward direction. The direction of this interaction was the same, though not significant, for the omission errors. Intralist errors were so low as to make consideration of them of dubious value. (Author/DI)

This study examines the effects on long-term retention of variations in intensity and temporal parameters of arousal following a single learning trial in a paired-associate task. Intensity of arousal was manipulated by using two levels of noise, 75 db. and 90 db., and a condition without noise. Noise was delivered to the 56 female university student subjects at 0-3 minutes, 3-6 minutes, and 6-9 minutes following a learning trial. The main effect of level of arousal was not significant. However, the results do tend to indicate that a moderate level of arousal induced between 6-9 minutes is conducive to the consolidation process, resulting in superior long-term recall. The results are discussed in terms of a multi-stage analysis of memory consolidation and directions for further research are outlined. (Author/TL)

This study investigates the hypotheses set forth by Russian researchers that there may be identified a pervasive characteristic of the central nervous system labeled as "strength". Ten of the 12 measures used were direct replications of representative strength measures derived from the Russian work. Two additional measures were included to test the possible relationship between strength and "arousal". Thirty-three graduate students were measured for Absolute Visual Threshold, Auditory Threshold, 2-Flash Threshold and Reaction Time, with the remaining variables derived by systematically varying experimental conditions. A factor analysis provided no clear-cut support for a dimension of strength although a number of less pervasive factors were obtained. The discussion centers around methodological issues and an apparent dimension of arousal. (Author/TL)

Two studies were reported which attempted to estimate the stability and construct validity of human salivary response as a measure of individual differences (IDs) in physiological arousal. Twenty-second base line estimates and 20-second response levels to four drops of lemon juice were measured, with the former value being removed from the latter to form the salivary score for a given subject. The first study obtained a test-retest correlation over 24 hours for the net salivation score of 0.78 (N = 25; p<.001). The second study involved the measurement of the threshold of fusion of paired light flashes [two-flash threshold (TFT)], a previously validated index of arousal, as well as salivation. The correlation between net salivation and TFT on 25 subjects was -.57 (p<.01). It was concluded that the salivary measure has demonstrated promising psychometric properties for use in ID research. (Author)

In two separate paired-associate learning experiments each employing 40 university students as subjects, the contribution of individual differences (IDs) in arousal to short- and long-term retention was investigated using IDs in salivary response to lemon juice stimulation as an index of arousal. Experimental subjects were pre-selected out of 184 subjects on the basis of extreme arousal scores. The hypotheses were tested that high-arousal learning would lead to poor short-term retention but would demonstrate reminiscence or superior long-term retention relative to low-arousal learning; low-arousal learning was expected to lead to superior short-term retention but classical forgetting over the long-term relative to high-arousal learning. Experiment (Exp.) One yielded (non-significant) results in the predicted direction, whereas Exp. Two, incorporating procedural changes on the basis of Exp. One, confirmed the hypotheses (p<.025). (Author)

In three experiments employing 60 Ss, arousal was manipulated by white noise during paired-associate, serial, and free learning in an effort to investigate the relationships of arousal and long-term recall. Previous research suggested that high arousal in the paired-associate paradigm leads to better retention relative to low arousal. The present research confirmed this finding only in the free learning situation. The results suggested that the effects of arousal are dependent on the nature of the material to be processed and the intensity of arousal. Certain problems of research design in this area were discussed. (Author)

The relation of arousal to retention in free learning was studied in a 3 x 2 design employing 48 undergraduates as Ss, three list conditions (high arousal, low arousal, mixed list) and two retention intervals (immediate and 3 days). Arousal value of the words was based on earlier studies. Contrary to previous paired-associate studies, no significant interaction between arousal condition and retention interval was obtained, nor was reminiscence detected. However, although no significant differences were found between arousal conditions on immediate retention, significantly greater performance was elicited by high arousal at the 3-day test. The high-arousal material demonstrated greater resistance to forgetting than the low-arousal material. A differential rehearsal interpretation of the data was suggested. (Author)

Heart rate change was used as the index of the orienting response (OR) of 102 kindergarten children. Heart rate change was measured by recording heart rate upon the presentation of tones. 15 similar tones followed by a different, 16th tone, were used. From this data the children were divided into high, medium, or low orientors. Following the "OR" testing session, 96 subjects received two pictorial analogues of verbal discrimination tasks. Subsequently, 65 subjects received a paired-associate (P-A) task. Learning on these tasks, when related to "OR" classification, showed that low "OR" males and medium "OR" females performed best, while medium "OR" males and low "OR" females performed worst. This finding was significant for the P-A task, indicating a relationship between "OR" classification and learning performance on this particular P-A task. It is difficult to explain the fact that performance was reversed between the sexes. (WD)

This report focuses on memory research, using 'interestingness' as a variable in paired-associate (PA) learning and retention. Nine PA lists were constructed from 'interestingness' ratings (high, medium, and low) on both stimulus and response sides, and controls over associative properties of stimulus and response terms. Subjects (162) were assigned to the nine lists and to short-versus long-term (48 hour) retention intervals. No significant interaction between interest and short-versus long-term retention was obtained. Interest had a significant main effect on the response side, with middle levels of response 'interestingness' leading to best retention; a significant interaction was obtained between the stimulus and response terms with retention interval collapsed. It is anticipated that results obtained in this report will help generate new knowledge of the learning and memory processes, particularly their developmental relationship to individual differences and to motivation. (Author/CJ)

Heart rate change was used as the index of the orienting response (OR) of 102 kindergarten children. Heart rate change was measured by recording heart rate upon the presentation of tones. 15 similar tones followed by a different, 16th tone, were used. From this data the children were divided into high, medium, or low orientors. Following the "OR" testing session, 96 subjects received two pictorial analogues of verbal discrimination tasks. Subsequently, 65 subjects received a paired-associate (P-A) task. Learning on these tasks, when related to "OR" classification, showed that low "OR" males and medium "OR" females performed best, while medium "OR" males and low "OR" females performed worst. This finding was significant for the P-A task, indicating a relationship between "OR" classification and learning performance on this particular P-A task. It is difficult to explain the fact that performance was reversed between the sexes. (WD)