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Purpose: Academic spin-off firms are considered an important mechanism to transfer technological knowledge from university to industry, although they often show a low growth rate. One possible cause is the lack of proper marketing capabilities, since spin-off managers tend to reduce the role of marketing to the implementation of mere tactical activities. This study analyses whether spin-off firms adopt a market orientation and the effect it produces on firms' economic and innovation performance. Design/methodology/approach: The empirical analysis is based on both quantitative survey data and in-depth interviews, referring to a unique sample including Italian and Spanish spin-off companies. Findings: Results highlight that MKTOR and MARKOR measurement scales show different abilities to capture the implementation of market orientation by sampled firms. We find that the generation and dissemination of information on customers and competitors directly affect firms' ability to develop technological innovations and gain profits. Nevertheless, market orientation also constitutes a challenge to spin-offs, and may eventually generate inefficiencies when external technological conditions require firms to respond quickly to environmental stimuli. Practical implications: The findings of this study are relevant to academic spin-off managers who are responsible for adopting, implementing and maintaining market orientation strategies under different environmental conditions. Limitations: The characteristics of sample used for the quantitative analysis may limit the generalization of results. Originality/value: Even though the market orientation concept has been largely analyzed, no previous study has examined its application by academic spin-offs. By employing qualitative and quantitative analyses we provide novel insights in this respect.

Purpose: Academic spin-off firms are considered an important mechanism to transfer technological knowledge from university to industry, although they often show a low growth rate. One possible cause is the lack of proper marketing capabilities, since spin-off managers tend to reduce the role of marketing to the implementation of mere tactical activities. This study analyses whether spin-off firms adopt a market orientation and the effect it produces on firms' economic and innovation performance. Design/methodology/approach: The empirical analysis is based on both quantitative survey data and in-depth interviews, referring to a unique sample including Italian and Spanish spin-off companies. Findings: Results highlight that MKTOR and MARKOR measurement scales show different abilities to capture the implementation of market orientation by sampled firms. We find that the generation and dissemination of information on customers and competitors directly affect firms' ability to develop technological innovations and gain profits. Nevertheless, market orientation also constitutes a challenge to spin-offs, and may eventually generate inefficiencies when external technological conditions require firms to respond quickly to environmental stimuli. Practical implications: The findings of this study are relevant to academic spin-off managers who are responsible for adopting, implementing and maintaining market orientation strategies under different environmental conditions. Limitations: The characteristics of sample used for the quantitative analysis may limit the generalization of results. Originality/value: Even though the market orientation concept has been largely analyzed, no previous study has examined its application by academic spin-offs. By employing qualitative and quantitative analyses we provide novel insights in this respect.

This work explores which factors increase firms' propensity to enter into international markets. The study draws on the resource-based view and assesses the effect played by firms' technological capabilities and cost structures on entry. While many research papers consider those two factors to be independent one from the other, this study focuses on their interactive effect. Empirical analysis covers the whole population of Spanish pharmaceutical firms over the period 1995-2004. By using data on trademarks filed at the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), the study identifies those firms that have entered the US market with branded products. Then, the study uses a hazard model to empirically estimate which firms' resources and capabilities affect the probability of entry. Results show that firms can maximize the likelihood of entry in foreign markets by pursuing hybrid competitive strategies that combine together scope economies and cost efficiency.

Firms have been modifying their innovation management processes to generate, implement and exploit new technological knowledge. A gradual shift from a closed to an open model of innovation has been the recurring pattern of this change. Firms have to revise their overall strategic orientation to adapt their managerial procedures according to the Open Innovation (OI) paradigm. The New Service-Dominant (S-D) Logic can offer a useful guideline to firms in the implementation of an OI model. This paper presents the bases of the OI paradigm by means of the S-D Logic mindset. For each of the premises characterizing the S-D Logic, instances of firms that have implicitly adopted the OI paradigm are provided. We discuss how the S-D Logic can be put in practice within the context of the OI model.

Firms have been modifying their innovation management processes to generate, implement and exploit new technological knowledge. A gradual shift from a closed to an open model of innovation has been the recurring pattern of this change. Firms have to revise their overall strategic orientation to adapt their managerial procedures according to the Open Innovation (OI) paradigm. The New Service-Dominant (S-D) Logic can offer a useful guideline to firms in the implementation of an OI model. This paper presents the bases of the OI paradigm by means of the S-D Logic mindset. For each of the premises characterizing the S-D Logic, instances of firms that have implicitly adopted the OI paradigm are provided. We discuss how the S-D Logic can be put in practice within the context of the OI model.

This thesis focuses on a specific category of co-branded products resulting from the alliance of high-tech products and luxury brands – we refer to them as “High-tech Luxury Co-branded Products” (HLCPs)” – whose presence in the market has increased in the last years. HLCPs represent an interesting case to study because they are characterized by both functional attributes (in which cognitive aspects are predominant) and symbolic attributes (in which affective aspects are mostly important). This fact represents a challenging issue which influences consumers’ perceptions and attitudes. In a context of rapid technological progress, consumers find it difficult to assess and compare alternative offerings of high-tech products; therefore, they tend to select the products with a trusted brand name. The association of high-tech products with luxury brands may therefore play a key role in this case. Furthermore, most studies consider consumers’ attitudes as a whole without accounting for attitudinal components and their drivers separately. In this thesis we take an alternative direction, by decomposing attitude into its main components and by applying the ABC (Affect, Behavior and Cognition) model of attitudes to explore consumers’ preferences. Decomposing attitude into different components provides us with clearer information about customers’ evaluation criteria for co-branded products. The ABC model of attitudes considers affect and cognition as predictors of a behavioral intention. In turn, through applying the ABC model of attitudes, this dissertation intends to identify and empirically examine how the components of attitude interact with each other as well as to explore which components lead to a success in the co-branding context. One of the major challenges related to co-branded products is that only a “good” fit stimulates a desirable attitude and association, and, therefore, influences consumers’ behavioral intentions (Simonin and Ruth, 1998; Helmig et al., 2007). Generally speaking, high-tech products and luxury goods have contrasting features. Luxury is exclusive and costly, but high-tech products are functional and useful. Thus, do consumers modify their attitudes when faced with a high-tech product with additional luxury attribute? Yet no matter how well luxury goods and electronic products fit with each other, its effect to buy HLCPs still remains unanswered. Thus, the findings from this dissertation would help marketers toward better decision-makings on introduction and positioning of co-branded products. The first study examines consumers’ attitudes toward HLCPs. We apply the ABC model of attitudes that uses affective responses and cognitive responses to predict consumers’ recommendation to buy HLCPs. We used the path analysis of structural equation modeling (SEM) to perform multi-group analysis to test our empirical model. The findings reveal that the empirical model is consistent and consumers use affective and cognitive responses to consider these co-branded products. They also pay more attention on the perception of product fit than brand fit. Lastly, our results show that luxurious attributes have stronger impact on consumers’ recommendation to buy HLCPs than hi-tech attributes. The second study explores how cultural differences influence consumers’ recommendation to buy HLCPs. The results show that intention to recommend HLPCs is mainly influenced by the affective component of attitude for consumers from Western cultures (e.g., Spanish consumers), while it is mainly influenced by the cognitive component of attitude for consumers from Eastern cultures (e.g., Taiwanese consumers). In addition, Western consumers place more importance on product fit while Eastern consumers emphasize the significance of brand fit. Finally, Taiwanese consumers favor high-technology attributes of co-branded products while Spanish consumers pay more attention to their luxurious attributes. The third papers examines gender effects on consumer attitude towards HLCPs. Based on the ABC (affect, behavior and cognition) model of attitudes, this study explores how gender moderates the relationship between each component of consumers’ attitude and key antecedents. The empirical results show that conditional on the high acceptance of high-tech products, the impact of male consumers’ attitude on recommendation to buy HLCPs is higher than for female consumers. Furthermore, as far as attitudes of male consumers are concerned, consumers’ recommendation to buy is higher the higher the acceptance of high-tech products and the level of product fit. By contrast, gender differences do not seem to play any role in influencing consumers’ affective and cognitive responses., Esta tesis se centra en una categoría específica de productos de marcas conjuntas cuya presencia en el mercado ha aumentado en los últimos años y resulta de la alianza de productos de alta tecnología y marcas de lujo - High-tech Luxury Co-branded products (HLCPs). Los HLCPs representan un caso interesante de estudiar porque se caracterizan tanto por atributos funcionales (en la que predominan aspectos cognitivos) como simbólicos (en la que predominan aspectos afectivos), lo cual condiciona la percepción de los consumidores y sus actitudes. En un contexto de rápido progreso tecnológico, los consumidores encuentran difícil de evaluar y comparar ofertas alternativas de productos de alta tecnología, y por lo tanto, tienden a seleccionar los productos de marcas de confianza. Dado lo anterior, la asociación de productos de alta tecnología con las marcas de lujo podría desempeñar un papel clave en el comportamiento de los consumidores. La mayoría de los estudios consideran las actitudes de los consumidores como un todo, sin analizar por separado los componentes de la actitud y sus detonadores. En esta tesis doctoral tomamos una dirección alternativa, separando la actitud en sus componentes principales y aplicando el modelo de actitudes ABC (Afecto, Comportamiento y Cognición) para explorar las preferencias de los consumidores. Separar la actitud en sus diferentes componentes nos proporciona una información más clara sobre los criterios de evaluación que siguen los clientes de productos de marcas conjuntas. El modelo de actitudes ABC considera el afecto y la cognición como predictores de la conducta. Mediante la aplicación de éste modelo, esta tesis se propone identificar y analizar empíricamente la interacción de los componentes de la actitud, así como explorar cuales de ellos determinan el éxito de una marca conjunta. Uno de los principales retos relacionados con los productos de marca conjunta es que solamente una buena compatibilidad entre los productos (“product-fit”) y marcas (“brand-fit”) involucradas es capaz de estimular una actitud deseable y de asociación, y, por lo tanto, influir en el comportamiento de los consumidores (Simonin y Ruth, 1998; que Helmig et al., 2007). En general, los productos de alta tecnología y los bienes de lujo tienen características opuestas. El lujo es exclusivo y costoso, mientras que los productos de alta tecnología son funcionales y útiles. Por lo tanto, ¿los consumidores modificarían sus actitudes frente a un producto de alta tecnología con atributos adicionales de lujo? Sin importar que tan compatibles sean los bienes de lujo y los productos electrónicos, el efecto de esta compatibilidad en la compra de HLPCs permanece sin respuesta. Por lo tanto, las conclusiones de esta tesis podrían ayudar a los comercializadores a tomar mejores decisiones respecto a la introducción y posicionamiento de los productos de marca conjunta. El primer estudio examina las actitudes de los consumidores hacia los HLCPs. Aplicamos el modelo de actitudes ABC, que utiliza respuestas afectivas y respuestas cognitivas para predecir la recomendación de los consumidores para comprar HLCPs. Por otro lado, utilizamos un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM) para realizar un análisis multi-grupo y probar nuestro modelo empírico. Las conclusiones ponen de manifiesto que el modelo empírico es coherente y los consumidores usan las respuestas afectivas y cognitivas para examinar los productos de marca conjunta. Del mismo modo, los resultados indican que los consumidores prestan más atención a ala compatibilidad de los productos (“product-fit”) que a la compatibilidad de marcas (“Brand-fit”). Por último, concluimos que los atributos de lujo tienen un mayor impacto que los atributos de alta tecnología en la recomendación de los consumidores para comprar HLCPs. El segundo estudio analiza cómo influyen las diferencias culturales de los consumidores en su recomendación de comprar HLCPs. Los resultados muestran que la intención de recomendar la compra de HLPCs está principalmente influenciada por el componente afectivo de la actitud en las culturas occidentales (por ejemplo, los consumidores españoles), mientras que en el caso de las culturas orientales (p. ej., los consumidores taiwaneses) dicha influencia viene dada principalmente por el componente cognitivo. Además, los consumidores occidentales consideran más importante la compatibilidad de productos (product fit”), mientras que los consumidores orientales hacen hincapié en la compatibilidad de marcas (“brand-fit”). Por último, los consumidores orientales prefieren los atributos de alta tecnología mientras que los consumidores occidentales ponen más atención en los atributos de lujo. El tercer ensayo examina efectos de género en la actitud del consumidor hacia los HLCPs. Con base en el modelo de actitudes ABC (afecto, comportamiento y cognición), este estudio analiza cómo el género modera la relación entre cada uno de los componentes de las actitudes de los consumidores y sus principales antecedentes. Los resultados empíricos muestran que, dada la gran aceptación de los productos de alta tecnología, el impacto de la actitud de los consumidores en su recomendación de comprar HLCPs es superior para los hombres que para las mujeres. Por otro lado, en lo que se refiere a las actitudes de los consumidores hombres, la recomendación para comprar HLCPs aumenta con la aceptación de productos de alta tecnología y el nivel de compatibilidad del producto (“product-fit”). Por el contrario, las diferencias de género no parecen jugar un papel importante en influir las respuestas cognitivas y afectivas del consumidor.

The exchange of technologies and technological knowledge — through joint-ventures, partnerships, licensing, cross-licensing, R&D contracts — and the upsurge of markets for technology are main features of the "knowledge-based" economy. Accordingly, companies are gradually changing their aptitude towards technology trading and exchange. This paper discusses the extent of technology licensing in chemicals, and considers the licensing strategies adopted by large chemical companies. Specifically, by analysing the case of Himont — widely involved in licensing its process technology — this paper explores the motivations for technology licensing, the managerial solutions that Himont adopted for licensing its technology, and the implications of this strategy in terms of antitrust policy. One of the main results emerging from the analysis is the role of external technology suppliers. By increasing the potential competition in the downstream product market, they create incentives for incumbent firms to license-out their technologies, and earn additional profits in the market for technology.

This book re-examines the rationale for public policy, concluding that the prevailing ‘public knowledge' model is evolving towards a networked or distributed model of knowledge production and use in which public and private institutions play complementary roles. It provides a set of tools and models to assess the impact of the new network model of funding and governance, and argues that governments need to adapt their funding and administrative priorities and procedures to support the emergence and healthy growth of research networks. The book goes on to explain that interdependencies and complementarities in the production and distribution of knowledge require a new and more contextual, flexible and complex approach to government funding, monitoring and assessment.

Few industries epitomize the market for knowledge as the chemical industry. Large and small companies, universities, and research laboratories are heterogeneous sources of scientific and technological knowledge. Market and non-market interactions are the means through which knowledge diffuses among them, and enhance the potential complementarities.

1. Introduzione In un momento storico in cui la necessità di un sostegno pubblico alla ricerca scientifica viene messo in discussione ed in cui la maggior parte dei paesi sta riducendo l’ammontare dei fondi a disposizione, la valutazione dei risultati dei programmi pubblici della ricerca scientifica e tecnologica sta diventando un elemento essenziale per garantire efficacia alla politica della scienza. Mentre la maggior parte degli studi considera l’allocazione delle risorse in r&s come un pr...