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We present a theory of sequential information processing in persuasion (SIP). It extends assumptions of the heuristic-systematic model, in particular the idea that information encountered early in a persuasion situation may affect the processing of subsequent information. SIP also builds on the abstraction from content-related dichotomies in accord with the parametric unimodel of social judgment. SIP features one constitutional axiom and three main postulates: (A) Persuasion is the sequential processing of information that is relevant to judgment formation. (1) Inferences drawn from initial information may bias the processing of subsequent information if they are either activated rules or valence expectations that are relevant to the subsequent information. (2) Inferences drawn from initial information are resistant to change. Thus, the interpretation of subsequent information is assimilated to inferences drawn from the initial information. Or, if assimilation is impossible, contrast effects occur. (3) The overall effect of a persuasion attempt corresponds to the recipient's judgment at the moment the processing of information is terminated. We illustrate how our predictions for assimilation and contrast effects may be tested by presenting results from an experiment (N = 216) in which we presented exactly the same arguments but varied the processing sequence. We discuss theoretical and applied implications of sequence effects for persuasion phenomena, as well as challenges for further research developing and testing the theory. Copyright © 2022 Linne, Hildebrandt, Bohner and Erb.

The stereotype content model (Fiske et al., 2002) defines warmth and competence as basic dimensions of social judgment, with warmth often dominating perceptions; it also states that many group-related stereotypes are ambivalent, featuring high levels on one dimension and low levels on the other. Persuasion theories feature both direct and indirect source effects (Bohner et al., 1995). Combining both the approaches, we studied the persuasiveness of ambivalently stereotyped sources. Participants (total n = 296) read persuasive arguments attributed to groups stereotyped as either low in competence but high in warmth (e.g., housewives) or vice versa (e.g., lawyers). In Study 1, high competence/low warmth sources were more persuasive than low competence/high warmth sources. In Study 2, this pattern replicated when an accuracy motive had been induced, whereas it reversed when a connectedness motive had been induced. These source effects were direct, that is, independent of message processing. We discuss our findings in terms of the persuasiveness of warmth vs. competence of the source as being dependent on recipient motivation; we also consider theoretical implications and perspectives for future research.

Hypotheses derived from the lateral attitude change (LAC) model were tested in a study on majority and minority influence. The authors predicted that reading majority arguments would lead to explicit and implicit focal attitude change as well as LAC (i.e., generalization), whereas reading minority arguments would lead to explicit LAC, but not to explicit focal attitude change (i.e., displacement). In a 3 (source: majority vs. minority vs. control) x 2 (order of attitude assessments: explicit-implicit vs. implicit-explicit) design, students (N = 180) read arguments against an unconditional basic income (focal topic) that came from either a majority or a minority, or no arguments (control condition). Later, their explicit and implicit attitudes toward the focal topic and four lateral topics (e.g., inclusive schooling) were assessed. Individual differences in the need for uniqueness were assessed as a potential moderator of majority and minority influence. The results showed focal explicit and implicit attitude change in both the majority and minority conditions, but no evidence for LAC. Need for uniqueness did not moderate the effects of majority or minority arguments. Potential reasons for the lack of evidence for LAC and implications for future research are discussed.

Two studies addressed effects of the labels ‘victim’, ‘battered woman’ and ‘survivor’ on the perception of women who have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). Spanish undergraduates provided free associations (Study 1; N = 54) and completed semantic differentials (Study 2; N = 142) regarding the labels. Results showed that the term ‘survivor’ evoked more positive associations and ratings than both ‘victim’ and ‘battered woman’, which did not differ from each other. At the same time, however, when asked directly, participants rated ‘survivor’ as the least appropriate term. These seemingly opposing findings replicate research on the terms’ use in sexual aggression. Results were independent of individuals’ acceptance of myths about IPV or knowing a woman who has experienced IPV. Implications for the use of specific language when communicating about IPV are discussed. En dos estudios distintos se abordan los efectos de las etiquetas “víctima”, “mujer maltratada” y “superviviente” en la percepción de las mujeres que han sufrido violencia de pareja (IPV, intimate partner violence). Una muestra de estudiantes universitarios españoles completaron tareas de asociación libre (Estudio 1, N = 54) y diferencial semántico (Estudio 2, N = 142) sobre estas etiquetas. Los resultados revelan que el término “superviviente” evoca asociaciones y valoraciones más positivas que “víctima” y “mujer maltratada”, que no mostraron diferencias entre ellos. No obstante, cuando se les preguntó directamente, los participantes valoraron el término “superviviente” como el menos apropiado. Estos hallazgos aparentemente contradictorios corroboran los de investigaciones previas sobre los términos utilizados en agresiones sexuales. Los resultados fueron independientes del nivel de aceptación de los participantes de los mitos sobre la violencia de pareja o de haber conocido personalmente a alguna mujer que la hubiese sufrido. Por último se discuten las implicaciones del uso del lenguaje cuando se comunican informaciones sobre violencia de pareja. Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under Grant PSI2016-79812-P (State Research Agency/10.13039/501100011033) Junta de Andalucía and University of Granada through the FEDER 2018/Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento, Program B-SEJ- 135-UGR18.

As part of a campus-wide prevention program, the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (PUC) implemented a cross-sequential survey on sexual violence. In this article, we report data from the first wave (2018; N = 2,046) from three cohorts of undergraduates (Year 1, n = 792; Year 2, n = 601; Year 3, n = 653). We found an overall twelve-month prevalence for victimization experiences of 18.7 percent (4.3 percent by force or threat of force; 12.9 percent while unable to resist; 7.1 percent by verbal pressure; multiple responses allowed). Women (22.9 percent) were victimized more frequently than men (9.7 percent). Among women, victimization rates were highest for Year 1 students (25.7 percent), intermediate for Year 2 (22.3%), and lowest for Year 3 (19.8 percent). Only 10.9 percent of reported incidents happened in a university context. In most cases, perpetrators were male (88.9 percent) and known to the victim (72.1 percent); 24.4 percent were partners, 35.5 percent were friends. We present additional data on risk factors and attitudinal correlates. We also discuss our findings in relation to previous research suggesting higher prevalence rates at Chilean universities, considering differences in methodology and implications for future research., International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), Vol 14 No 1 (2020)

The Lateral Attitude Change Model (LAC) model (Glaser et al., 2015) features two phenomena of attitude change: generalization and displacement. Generalization occurs when attitude change toward a focal attitude object X (on both implicit and explicit levels) generalizes toward a lateral attitude object Y. Displacement occurs when there is no explicit attitude change toward X, but explicit and implicit attitudes toward Y do change nonetheless. The LAC model specifies conditions leading to each phenomenon and the cognitive processes involved. In a research proposal, Glaser and Bohner (2015) described several experiments designed to test the LAC model. In three studies reported here (total N = 281), 145 attitude objects were pilot-tested for use in those experiments. The focus lay on the similarity between objects, which is the main proposed moderator of LAC. Study 1 featured four sets of dinosaur drawings, which were tested for neutrality and similarity. Study 2 featured eight sets of attitude objects depicted in photographs (e.g., household articles and sports equipment), which were tested for valence and similarity. Studies 3(a) and 3(b) featured socio-political issues, which were tested for valence, importance, similarity, and participants’ awareness of similarity. All stimuli and the results of pilot testing are presented.

Two studies addressed effects of the labels ‘victim’, ‘battered woman’ and ‘survivor’ on the perception of women who have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). Spanish undergraduates provided free associations (Study 1; N = 54) and completed semantic differentials (Study 2; N = 142) regarding the labels. Results showed that the term ‘survivor’ evoked more positive associations and ratings than both ‘victim’ and ‘battered woman’, which did not differ from each other. At the same time, however, when asked directly, participants rated ‘survivor’ as the least appropriate term. These seemingly opposing findings replicate research on the terms’ use in sexual aggression. Results were independent of individuals’ acceptance of myths about IPV or knowing a woman who has experienced IPV. Implications for the use of specific language when communicating about IPV are discussed., En dos estudios distintos se abordan los efectos de las etiquetas “víctima”, “mujer maltratada” y “superviviente” en la percepción de las mujeres que han sufrido violencia de pareja (IPV, intimate partner violence). Una muestra de estudiantes universitarios españoles completaron tareas de asociación libre (Estudio 1, N = 54) y diferencial semántico (Estudio 2, N = 142) sobre estas etiquetas. Los resultados revelan que el término “superviviente” evoca asociaciones y valoraciones más positivas que “víctima” y “mujer maltratada”, que no mostraron diferencias entre ellos. No obstante, cuando se les preguntó directamente, los participantes valoraron el término “superviviente” como el menos apropiado. Estos hallazgos aparentemente contradictorios corroboran los de investigaciones previas sobre los términos utilizados en agresiones sexuales. Los resultados fueron independientes del nivel de aceptación de los participantes de los mitos sobre la violencia de pareja o de haber conocido personalmente a alguna mujer que la hubiese sufrido. Por último se discuten las implicaciones del uso del lenguaje cuando se comunican informaciones sobre violencia de pareja., Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad under Grant PSI2016-79812-P (State Research Agency/10.13039/501100011033), Junta de Andalucía and University of Granada through the FEDER 2018/Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento, Program B-SEJ- 135-UGR18.

The lateral attitude change (LAC) model posits that attitude change toward a focal object generalizes to similar, lateral objects. In two experiments (total N = 331), the authors tested the hypotheses that (1) priming a particular lateral object would increase generalization of attitude change to that (vs. another) lateral object, and (2) priming a particular attribute of a focal object would increase generalization of attitude change to lateral objects sharing (vs. not sharing) that attribute. The method used for changing focal attitudes was evaluative conditioning (EC); explicit and implicit attitudes were assessed via self-reports and the affect misattribution procedure, respectively. In Experiment 1, where pictures of dinosaurs were used as attitude objects and one of two lateral objects was primed, EC unexpectedly produced a trend toward a contrast effect on implicit focal attitudes. However, in line with Hypothesis 1, this contrast pattern generalized to implicit attitudes toward the primed (vs. non-primed) lateral object. In Experiment 2, where social groups were used as attitude objects and one of two attributes (gender or age) was primed, no effects of EC on focal attitudes were found. Additional analyses using contingency awareness, need for cognition, and preference for consistency as potential moderator variables yielded some interesting effects. Related studies as well as conceptual and methodological implications for LAC are discussed.

IZGOnZeit. Onlinezeitschrift des Interdisziplinären Zentrums für Geschlechterforschung (IZG), IFFOnZeit Nr. 5 (2016)

International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), Vol 12 (2018)

Female rape victims who display “appropriate” emotions (versus “inappropriate” or no emotions) are often judged to be more credible. The authors studied the interplay of different emotion displays with perceivers’ acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression (AMMSA) in predicting judgments of credibility and blame. Law students (N = 120) completed a 16-item AMMSA scale and watched a video showing a simulated interview with a rape victim (played by an actress). The emotion displayed by the victim (sad, angry, or neutral) was experimentally manipulated; her statement’s verbal content was held constant. Main dependent variables were perceived victim credibility, victim blame, severity of the injury, and likelihood of recovery. Results showed that AMMSA strongly predicted all dependent variables across conditions. Effects of displayed emotions were less pervasive and depended on participants’ gender and AMMSA: At higher (vs. lower) levels of AMMSA, women – but not men – judged the sad victim’s statement to be most credible, and the angry victim’s statement to be least credible, with the neutral statement falling in between. The findings suggest that perceivers may be better at keeping their judgements free from unwanted external influences (the emotional displays) than unwanted internal influences (their own AMMSA). The authors discuss future directions regarding the mechanisms involved and practical implications for the legal context., International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), Vol 12 (2018)

International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), Vol 11 (2017)

IZGOnZeit. Onlinezeitschrift des Interdisziplinären Zentrums für Geschlechterforschung (IZG), IFFOnZeit Nr. 3 (2014)

Journal Netzwerk Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung NRW, vol. 2016, no. 38, p. 54

With an Arab-Muslim sample of 160 Egyptian citizens from the greater Cairo area, we examined the role of religion in prejudice toward U.S. Americans and Europeans. When religious fundamentalism was tested concurrently with general religiousness, results showed that only religious fundamentalism significantly predicted both prejudices. In a second step we included closed-mindedness (CM), a facet of need for cognitive closure, and conservatism (RCON), a facet of right-wing authoritarianism, to explain the religion – prejudice link. Instead of using the two variables as parallel mediators, we assumed that CM is a predictor of RCON. Hence, in a first model we applied CM and RCON as serial mediators of the religious fundamentalism – prejudice relation. In a second model, an alternative approach was introduced where fundamentalism was predicted by CM and RCON; prejudice remained the outcome variable. Results showed that RCON had stronger effects in comparison to CM across all models and that religious fundamentalism was marginal or not significant when CM and RCON served as preceding variables in the second model suggesting that they may be more decisive than religious fundamentalism in the development of prejudice. Participants distinguished between U.S. Americans and Europeans with U.S. Americans being the more relevant outgroup in the religious context., International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV), Vol 10, No 1: Extremely Violent Societies

Three experiments (total *N* = 464) were conducted in parallel with English- and German-speaking participants to examine the perceived meanings and effects of the labels "victim" versus "survivor" (and their German equivalents) when applied to a woman who was raped. In Study 1 (*N* = 179), participants read a rape vignette and then rated the meaning of the label it contained (either "victim" or "survivor") on a 15-item semantic differential. Independent of language and participant gender, "survivor" was perceived more positively overall (e.g., as *strong, brave, active*) than was "victim" (*weak, passive*, but also *innocent*). In Study 2 (*N* = 95), labels were varied within items assessing judgments of an acquaintance-rape case (e.g., *"Does the victim [survivor] . . . carry a certain responsibility for what happened?"*), focusing on short-term outcomes. Significant interaction effects of label and participants' gender emerged on case-related judgments. Participants in both language samples judged "survivor" to be a less appropriate term than "victim". In Study 3 (N = 190), participants read a text in which a woman who had been raped labeled herself as either "victim" or "survivor", focusing on the coping with sexual violence. As in Study 2, German-language participants showed no significant effects of the label on their case judgments but rejected the term "survivor" as inappropriate; English-language participants, by contrast, perceived the woman describing herself as "survivor" to be more psychologically stable and regarded the use of both labels as appropriate. Results are discussed in terms of their applied relevance for communicating about sexual violence.

Field experiments on descriptive norms as a means to increase hotel guests' towel reuse [1] were replicated and extended. In two hotels in Germany (Study 1: N = 724; Study 2: N = 204), descriptive norm messages suggesting that 75% of guests had reused their towels, or a standard message appealing to environmental concerns, were placed in guests' bathrooms. Descriptive norm messages varied in terms of proximity of the reference group ("hotel guests" vs. "guests in this room") and temporal proximity (currently vs. two years previous). Reuse of towels was unobtrusively recorded. Results showed that reuse rates were high overall and that both standard and descriptive norm messages increased reuse rates compared to a no-message baseline. However, descriptive norm messages were not more effective than the standard message, and effects of proximity were inconsistent across studies. Discussion addresses cultural and conceptual issues in comparing the present findings with previous ones.

In three experiments (total N = 96), we investigated the origins of effects of associations between affective valence and spatial elevation (or verti-cality). To that end, we used a congruence measure. We used spatial and affective stimuli, like the words "up" and "happy". Spatial stimuli had to be categorized as elevated or less elevated and affective stimuli as positive or negative. Critically, in congruent conditions, associated spatial and affective stimuli required the same response and less associated stimuli required different responses, whereas in incongruent conditions, associated spatial and affective stimuli required different responses, but less associated stimuli required the same response. The results supported the assumption that valence-elevation associations exist in semantic memory: faster responses in congruent than incongruent conditions were observed with (I) words (Experiments 1 and 2), (II) pictures and words (Experiment 3), and (III) increased as a function of the centrality of the spatial meaning for the spatial words (Experiments 1 vs. 2). We discuss the implications of our results for the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

When people estimate a numeric value after judging whether it is larger or smaller than a high or low anchor value (comparative question), estimates are biased in the direction of the anchor. One explanation for this anchoring effect is that people selectively access knowledge consistent with the anchor value as part of a positive test strategy. Two studies (total N = 184) supported the alternative explanation that people access knowledge consistent with their own answer to the comparative question. Specifically, anchoring effects emerged when the answer to the comparative question was unexpected (lower than the low anchor or higher than the high anchor). For expected answers (lower than the high anchor or higher than the low anchor), however, anchoring effects were attenuated or reversed. The anchor value itself was almost never reported as an absolute estimate.

In a complex world a quick evaluation of objects and situations is very helpful. It can guide our attention and behavior toward the things that matter to us. Attitudes are such evaluations. They can refer to anything one can conceive of: individuals and groups, products, music, or even smells, as well as suggestions and ideas. For example, when we meet someone new, we form an attitude toward our new acquaintance within seconds. Often, we do not know where this affective reaction comes from.

The present research demonstrates a dissociation between explicit and implicit intergroup evaluation in the reciprocal attitudes between indigenous (Mapuche) and non-indigenous Chileans. In both social groups, the explicit measures of attitudes towards the respective in-group and out-group were compared with the Implicit Association Test scores. The results indicate that the members of the low-status minority might explicitly express a moderate evaluative preference for their in-group but might implicitly devalue it. Conversely, the members of the high-status majority might implicitly devalue their out-group but might explicitly express no bias. These results are theoretically framed in terms of system justification, conventional stereotypes and motivated correction processes.

We propose the Category-Focus IAT (CF-IAT) as an instrument to measure the implicit associations of single concepts. The CF-IAT directs respondents' attention to a subset of the experimental materials. In a first study using the CF-IAT, Chilean adolescents (N = 49), members of either the indigenous minority (Mapuche) or the nonindigenous majority, completed CF-IATs assessing implicit attitudes toward these groups. Results revealed, in both groups, a neutral implicit evaluation of the ingroup, but a negative implicit evaluation of the outgroup. Process evidence suggests that the CF-IAT's manipulation of attentional focus was successful.

From a methodological point of view, the authors address social science research dealing with the evaluation of programs in the area of environmental protection. The relevant concepts are defined, and issues of research design and data gathering are discussed. Specifically, experimental and quasi-experimental designs are compared. The authors further discuss problems such as selection effects, treatment contamination, representativeness, reactivity of measurement, influences of social desirability on responses, and the pros and cons of individual versus aggregated data. In an outlook on possible future developments, the aspects of methodology and of institutionalizing evaluation research are addressed.

Vor dem Hintergrund neuerer Modelle zur Einstellungsänderung werden potentielle Auswirkungen der emotionalen Befindlichkeit auf die Verarbeitung persuasiver Kommunikationen diskutiert und mit vorliegenden empirischen Untersuchungen konfrontiert. Die Befunde zeigen übereinstimmend, daß die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer ausgeprägten inhaltsbezogenen Verarbeitung in guter Stimmung geringer ist als in schlechter Stimmung. Insbesondere zeigt sich, daß Personen, die sich zum Zeitpunkt der Rezeption der Botschaft in guter Stimmung befinden, weniger zwischen stichhaltigen und weniger stichhaltigen Argumenten differenzieren als Personen in schlechter Stimmung. Gute Stimmung zum Urteilszeitpunkt führt zur Bevorzugung einfacher vor differenzierten Repräsentationen einer Botschaft.Beides steht im Einklang mit Modellen zur Wechselwirkung von Emotion und Kognition, die von einer Tendenz zur Vereinfachung kognitiver Verarbeitungsprozesse in guter Stimmung ausgehen. Anwendungsbezogene Aspekte dieser Befunde werden diskutiert.

Publisher Summary This chapter outlines different mediating processes that are consistent with the current theory on the interplay of emotion and cognition, and evaluates these assumptions in the light of the available evidence. According to the “Cognitive response” approach, recipients of a persuasive communication may arrive at an attitude judgment by one of the two ways, and may consider the content of the message, paying close attention to the implications of the presented arguments. The recipients may not engage in a thorough consideration of message content, but may rely on simple cues, such as the communicator's prestige or likableness. For the content-oriented, processing strategy is “systematic processing” or the “central route to persuasion”. Current theorizing on the interplay of affect and cognition suggests at least five ways in which the recipients' mood may influence persuasion processes within this general framework. Each of these possibilities has different implications for recipients' attitude change, their cognitive responses to the message, and their evaluation of the presented arguments.

'Ein Fragebogen zur Erfassung individueller Differenzen im Engagement und der Freude bei Denkaufgaben wird vorgestellt. Die Skala stellt eine Übersetzung der 'Need for Cognition' (NFC)-Skala dar, die von Cacioppo & Petty (1982) für den anglo-amerikanischen Sprachbereich entwickelt wurde. Die deutsche Version der NFC-Skala erlaubt eine ökonomische Durchführung und weist gute Skalenkennwerte auf. Im Zuge des verstärkten Interesses an kognitiven Prozessen bietet sie die Möglichkeit, neben situativ bedingten auch dispositional bedingte Variationen in der Intensität der kognitiven Verarbeitung und deren Auswirkungen auf soziales Urteilen und Verhalten zu untersuchen.' (Autorenreferat)

Dieser technische Bericht beschäftigt sich mit Fortschritten in der experimentellen Sozialpsychologie. Es werden die verschiedenen Stimmungen und Emotionen von Informationsprozessen angesprochen. Dabei werden Überredungs- bzw. Überzeugungsstrategien bei Berücksichtigung vom Aspekt der Stimmung besonders untersucht. So zum Beispiel auch die Stimmung, wenn ein Urteil, eine Entscheidung gefällt wird. (US)