Search

Writing is an important skill that takes time to master. Berninger and Amtmann’s (2003) ‘Simple view of writing’ is a useful framework for understanding the different skills; language, cognitive, and motor processes involved in writing and how they interact. In early childhood the focus is on mastering the ‘transcription’ skills of how to form the letters and words required to represent language in its written form. Once this essential skill is mastered, then the focus moves to ‘text generation’ and how to use written language effectively to convey information. Writing skills are important throughout education with handwritten work continuing to be used as a method of assessment. However, for some students, writing continues to present challenges in higher education (HE), with difficulties experienced in the accuracy and fluency of writing letters or spelling words (transcription skills) and/or in the planning and composition of ideas and thoughts into written text (text generation skills). This includes students with specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) such as dyslexia and in 2021-22 students with SpLDs accounted for 6.15% of the higher education (HE) student population in the UK and for 33% of the student population with a known disability (Higher Education Statistics Authority, 2023). Various tools are available to measure aspects of transcription. For example, the standardised Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH, Barnett et al., 2007; DASH17+, Barnett et al., 2010) measures handwriting speed across a range of writing tasks. Handwriting legibility can be assessed with the criterion referenced Handwriting Legibility Scale (HLS; Barnett et al., 2018). However, tools for measuring writing quality are limited, particularly for use with students in HE. The development of the Writing Quality Scale (WQS; Stuart & Barnett, 2023) arose out of the needs of specialist teacher assessors working in HE. The aim was to develop a quick, simple, and practical cri

Handwriting is a useful skill through education, yet handwriting difficulties are common in students with Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD), including Developmental Coordination Disorder. There are few practical tools to assess legibility, among these the Handwriting Legibility Scale (HLS) shows good reliability and validity for 9- to 14-year-olds in the United Kingdom. The aims of the current study were to investigate applicability of the HLS in students with and without SpLD in (a) another language and (b) older age groups. First, the HLS was translated and applied to writing scripts of 193 9- to 14-year-olds in Italy. Findings support previous work on reliability and validity. A principal component analysis confirmed a single component for the HLS at this age and there was differentiation between scripts from students with and without SpLD. Second, the HLS was applied to writing scripts of 80 15- to 16-year-olds and 120 17- to 25-year-olds in the United Kingdom. Results showed good reliability and differentiation between scripts from students with and without SpLD. A principal component analysis revealed two components for the HLS in the older age groups. Language and age differences in the use of the HLS are discussed, alongside other considerations when applying the tool to help identify handwriting difficulties in students.

Purpose of Review. Typing is an important skill for education and beyond and is often recommended for those with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and/or specific learning disorder (SLD) when handwriting is a challenge. This review outlines a model of typing to demonstrate the language, perceptual, and motor components involved. It then summarises selected research on typing skill in DCD and SLD. The purpose of the review is to identify current knowledge of typing skill in these groups to enhance understanding and inform future work on assessment, accommodations, and intervention. Recent Findings. Thirteen relevant studies, published between 2008 and 2024, were identified. These vary widely in the types of disorder/difficulties studied, participant age, and language. They also include a range of tasks (alphabet writing, writing to dictation, copywriting, compositional writing) and employ different measures of typing. Taken together, they examine aspects of the typed ‘product’ (speed and accuracy), the ‘process’ of typing (efficiency, gaze, and finger movements), and student ‘perceptions’ of typing. Despite the varied groups studied and methods employed, findings are consistent. Most studies report that in groups with developmental disorders, typing is poorer than handwriting, and typing is poorer compared to typically developing peers. Summary. The findings have important implications for research and practice. They indicate the need for further research on typing in specific diagnostic groups. They also emphasise the need for practical tools to assess typing performance across a range of tasks. This will aid the identification of typing difficulties and help plan appropriate accommodations and/or intervention.

Background: In school, children are required to perform a range of handwriting tasks. The writing needs to be legible to the child and other readers. The aim of this study was to examine handwriting legibility across different writing tasks and to explore which components might predict overall handwriting legibility. Methods: This was a secondary analysis of data from 148 school-aged children across writing scripts obtained from the Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting: copying-best, copying-quickly and free-writing. Results: Results showed that letter formation was the major predictor of the total HLS score, and significant differences in handwriting legibility were found across the three tasks. Conclusions: The HLS is a practical tool that can benefit occupational therapists who work in schools by assessing handwriting legibility across different handwriting tasks.

Students must be able to produce legible and fluent text when completing classwork and for exam purposes. Some students, however, present with handwriting difficulties in secondary school. When these are significant, intervention may be necessary or alternatives to handwriting may be offered (e.g. use of a word processor). Little is known about current practice of supporting secondary students with handwriting difficulties in England and how recommendations are made to transition to typing. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 practitioners with a responsibility for supporting students with handwriting difficulties. Two themes were identified. The first theme, ‘doing the right thing’, illustrated the tension between practitioners' commitment to supporting students with handwriting difficulties and their uncertainty around what is the ‘right’ approach. The second theme, ‘influencing practice’, described the contextual factors (student and family, school environment and national context) that impact on practitioners' practice and their decision to transition from handwriting to typing. Findings highlight the complexities of supporting this group of students and an urgent need for guidance at a national level to assist best practice. Implications for practice are discussed. Further research examining the effectiveness of handwriting interventions with secondary students and the optimum time to start typing is warranted.

Students in higher education (HE) are required to complete a variety of writing tasks for coursework and examinations. However, for some students writing presents a major challenge. In the UK, the availability of tools for specialist assessors to help identify difficulties with the quality of written composition is limited. The aim of this study was to develop a practical new tool, the Writing Quality Scale (WQS) for assessing writing quality in HE, that was both easy to use and did not require specialist or subject knowledge. The reliability and validity of the tool and its ability to identify students in HE who may need support was evaluated by examining scripts from 120 students (60 male) aged 17-25 years. The WQS was found to have good inter-rater reliability and was sensitive enough to pick up age differences and differentiate between groups of students with and without dyslexia. The WQS will be a useful tool for specialist assessors in HE to help in the identification of those with poor writing quality and to understand more about the nature of their difficulties.

We evaluate the shared genetic regulation of mRNA molecules, proteins and metabolites derived from whole blood from 3029 human donors. We find abundant allelic heterogeneity, where multiple variants regulate a particular molecular phenotype, and pleiotropy, where a single variant associates with multiple molecular phenotypes over multiple genomic regions. The highest proportion of share genetic regulation is detected between gene expression and proteins (66.6%), with a further median shared genetic associations across 49 different tissues of 78.3% and 62.4% between plasma proteins and gene expression. We represent the genetic and molecular associations in networks including 2828 known GWAS variants, showing that GWAS variants are more often connected to gene expression in trans than other molecular phenotypes in the network. Our work provides a roadmap to understanding molecular networks and deriving the underlying mechanism of action of GWAS variants using different molecular phenotypes in an accessible tissue.

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have been shown to have different coordination patterns on some tasks compared to their typically developing peers. However, it is unclear whether these differences are driven by the fact that typically developing children tend to be more practiced at the task on which coordination is being measured. The current study used a novel pedalo task to measure coordination in order to eliminate any practice differences. Thirty children (8 years -16 years), 15 with DCD and 15 without were recruited for this study. Children pedalled along an 8m line 20 times. Movement of the 7th Cervical Vertebra, shoulders, elbows, wrists, hips, knees, ankles and toes was recorded. In terms of outcome measures, pedalling speed was not different between the groups but the coefficient of variation of speed was higher in the children with DCD indicating a less smooth movement. Coordination was measured by calculating angles at the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee and ankle. A higher correlation coefficient (more tightly coupled movement) and a greater variation in joint angle was seen in the typically developing children for specific joint segments. The relationship between group and movement outcome (smoothness of movement) was mediated by inter-limb coordination variability. Therefore, the poor coordination and slower learning generally reported in children with DCD could be due to a slower or less optimal exploration of motor solutions.

The United Kingdom and Ireland have a well-established research base in motor competence (MC) research, ranging from reporting and monitoring levels of MC, developing assessment tools for MC, providing innovative curriculum and intervention design to support learning and development, as well as providing advocacy for particular groups, such as those with motor impairments. This expert statement, on behalf of the International Motor Development Research Consortium, draws together what is currently known about levels of MC in the United Kingdom and Ireland as well as current approaches to intervention in both countries. Subsequently presented are recommendations for researchers and practitioners to advance the field of MC for the benefit of children and youth in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and worldwide.

Background: Successful self-feeding reflects the readiness of early motor development and environmental impacts, and the onset of self-feeding as a developmental milestone might be a predictor of subsequent motor development in children. In this study, we explored the association between the onset of self-feeding and childhood risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder in children from one-child and two-child families. Methods: We conducted a data-linkage prospective cohort study from 38 kindergartens in 6 cities in China. A total of 11,727 preschoolers were included in the final analysis and were assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-second edition (MABC-2) Test. The information on early self-feeding onset was obtained from parents. The mixed and multi-level logistic models utilizing a random intercept were used to investigate the associations between the onset time of self-feeding and subsequent motor performance. Results: The results showed that, compared with those beginning self-feeding at or younger than 12 months of age, children starting self-feeding at 13-24 months, 25-36 months, and later than 36 months, showed a decrease in their total MABC-2 scores of 2.181, 3.026 and 3.874, respectively; and had an increased risk of suspected DCD by 36.0%, 101.6%, 102.6% respectively; they also had 30.2%, 46.6%, 71.2% increased prevalence of at risk of suspected DCD, when adjusting for both child and family characteristics (each p<0.05). Significant associations were observed in fine motor, gross motor, and balance subtests (each p<0.05) in groups with a delayed onset of self-feeding. However, the strength of the associations was mitigated in the fine motor and balance subtests in children with a sibling. Conclusion: The delayed onset time of self-feeding acts as an early behavioural marker for later childhood motor impairment. Moreover, children with a sibling may benefit from additional interaction and their motor developmental pattern may be aff

Background: The association between preterm birth and neurodevelopmental delays have been well examined, however, reliable estimates for the full range of gestational age (GA) are limited, and few studies explored the impact of post-term birth on child development. Objective: This study aimed to examine the long-term neuropsychological outcomes of children born in a full range of GA with a national representative sample in China. Methods: In this retrospective population-based cohort study, a total of 137,530 preschoolers aged 3-5 years old (65,295/47.5% females and 72,235/52.5% males) were included in the final analysis. The Ages and Stages Questionnaires-Third Edition (ASQ-3) was completed by parents to evaluate children’s neurodevelopment. The associations between GA and neurodevelopment were analyzed by a generalized additive mixed model with thin plate regression splines. Logistic regression was also conducted to examine the differences in children’s development with different GAs. Results: There was a non-linear relationship between GA and children’s neurodevelopmental outcomes with the highest scores at 40 weeks gestational age. The adjusted risks of GAs (very and moderately preterm, late-preterm, early-term, and post-term groups) on suspected developmental delays were observed in communication (OR were 1.83, 1.28, 1.13, 1.21 respectively, each p<0.05), gross motor skill (OR were 1.67, 1.38, 1.10, 1.05 respectively, each p<0.05), and personal social behaviour (OR were 1.01, 1.36, 1.12, 1.18 respectively, each p<0.05). The adjusted OR of very and moderately preterm, late-preterm, and early-term were observed in fine motor skills (OR were 1.53, 1.22, 1.09 respectively, each p<0.05) and problem-solving (OR were 1.33, 1.12, 1.06 respectively, each p<0.05). Conclusion: GAs is a risk factor for neurodevelopmental delays in preschoolers after controlling for a wide range of covariates, and 40–41 weeks may be the ideal delivery GA for optimal neurodevelopmental outco

Introduction: While most children have developed effective handwriting by secondary school age, some have handwriting difficulties that hamper academic progress. Occupational therapists play a role in assessment and planning support, which may include introducing typing as an alternative. However, there is limited understanding regarding how decisions are made about recommending typing. This study explored the support provided to adolescents with handwriting difficulties by occupational therapists, and the contextual factors that influence their decision-making. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 13 occupational therapists and analysed using thematic analysis. Findings: Although there was shared practice underpinned by occupational therapy philosophy, there was also divergent practice due to different approaches. Roles and responsibilities, resources, and evidence and experience influenced occupational therapists’ practice. Understanding the adolescent’s motivation, the effect of handwriting difficulties on well-being and the need for a functional method to record schoolwork, was central to occupational therapists’ decision-making to recommend typing. Conclusion: Strategies are needed to address the knowledge-practice gap, including evidence-based guidelines. Closer collaboration between occupational therapists and school staff could increase understanding of roles and highlight the unique occupational therapy contribution. Further research examining whether, when and how to introduce typing as an alternative to handwriting would support best practice.

The United Kingdom and Ireland have a well-established research base in motor competence (MC) research, ranging from reporting and monitoring levels of MC, developing assessment tools for MC, providing innovative curriculum and intervention design to support learning and development, as well as providing advocacy for particular groups, such as those with motor impairments. This expert statement, on behalf of the International Motor Development Research Consortium, draws together what is currently known about levels of MC in the United Kingdom and Ireland as well as current approaches to intervention in both countries. Subsequently presented are recommendations for researchers and practitioners to advance the field of MC for the benefit of children and youth in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and worldwide.

Parents and teachers have knowledge of children’s daily motor performance yet may make different judgments about the levels of competence observed at home and school. The current study aimed to examine the discrepancies between parent and teacher reports using the Movement ABC-2 Checklist and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) on children with and without suspected Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The Movement ABC-2 Test was administered to 1276 children aged 5–10 years in China. The Movement ABC-2 Checklist and DCDQ were completed by both parents and teachers of all children. A total of 172 children achieving a score below the 15th percentile on the Movement ABC-2 Test were identified as children with suspected DCD. Both parents and teachers showed suitable agreement in judging children’s motor competence but low sensitivity in identifying children with DCD. Parent scores of children’s motor competence were more closely associated with test performance scores compared to teacher scores. Teachers tended to over-rate children’s motor competence. The motor difficulties identified by parents were associated with low Movement ABC-2 Test scores on Manual Dexterity and Balance components, while motor difficulties identified by teachers were associated with the Balance component only. The results demonstrated discrepancies between parent and teacher reports, suggesting the importance of using a range of measures to identify and describe motor difficulties in children

The ability to finely control our movement is key to the achieving many of the educational milestones and life-skills we develop throughout our lives. Despite the centrality of coordination to our early development, there is a vast gap in our understanding of the underlying biology. Like most complex traits, both genetics and environment influence motor coordination, however, the specific genes, early environmental risk factors and molecular pathways are unknown. Previous studies have shown that about 5% of school-age children experience unexplained difficulties with motor coordination. These children are said to have Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). For children with DCD, these motor coordination difficulties significantly impact their everyday life and learning. DCD is associated with poorer academic achievement, reduced quality of life, it can constrain career opportunities and increase the risk of mental health issues in adulthood. Despite the high prevalence of coordination difficulties, many children remain undiagnosed by healthcare professionals. Compounding under-diagnosis in the clinic, research into the etiology of DCD is severely underrepresented in the literature. Here we present the first genome-wide association study (GWAS) to examine the genetic basis of early motor coordination in the context of motor difficulties. Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) we generate a derived measure of motor coordination from four components of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC), providing an overall measure of coordination across the full range of ability. We perform the first genome-wide association analysis focused on motor coordination (N=4542). No single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) met the threshold for genome-wide significance however 59 SNPs showed suggestive associations. Three regions contained multiple suggestively associated SNP, within five preliminary candidate genes: IQSEC1, LRCC1, SYN

Purpose of review. Handwriting is a particular difficulty in DCD. Children who struggle to produce legible and sufficiently fast handwriting may under-achieve at school. Using van Galen’s model, this review examines recent research to describe the nature of handwriting difficulties in DCD. The range of assessment tools is highlighted and recommendations for intervention provided. Recent findings. Embedded in the broader skill of writing, handwriting involves more than motor skill. Children with DCD tend to produce less writing than their peers. Their slow rate of production is characterised by frequent pauses. Errors in letter formation negatively impact on legibility and the quality of written composition is also poor. Different types of assessment help to capture the range of difficulties. Summary. Comprehensive assessment helps gain a full understanding of the nature of handwriting difficulties in DCD. International recommendations and guidelines provide a valuable framework for assessment and principles for intervention.

Lifecourse epidemiology suggests that preconception is a valuable opportunity for health promotion with young women. Yet young women are less likely than older women to be research participants, limiting evidence about their needs and risks. Marketing data indicate that young adults are not engaged with one advertising strategy because they transition through three life stages: (1) limited independence and focus on own interests, (2) increased independence and time with peers, (3) establishing a home and family. The aim of this study was to explore whether these marketing lifestage categories could inform the tailoring of strategies to recruit young women.Three focus groups per lifestage category were conducted (49 women aged 16 to 34 years). Lifestage category (1) was represented by further education students, category (2) by women in workplaces, and (3) by mothers. Questions explored participants’ lifestyles, identity, reasons for participation in the current study and beliefs about researchers. Three major themes were identified through framework analysis: Profiling how young women spend their time; Facilitators of participating in research; and Barriers to participating. Students and women in work valued monetary remuneration whereas mothers preferred social opportunities. Participants’ perceived identity influenced whether they felt useful to research. All groups expressed anxiety about participation. Altruism was limited to helping people known to participants. Therefore, the marketing categories did not map exactly to differences in young women’s motivations to participate but have highlighted how one recruitment strategy may not engage all. Mass media communication could, instead, increase familiarity and reduce anxiety about participation.

Knowledge of obstetric and environmental influences on Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) helps provide increased understanding of the mechanisms underlying the disorder. However, the literature to date has not adequately examined the obstetric and environmental risk factors for DCD in a population-based sample. The current study was therefore conducted to explore the prenatal, perinatal, neonatal, and family environmental risk factors for DCD. A total of 2185 children aged 3-10 years from a national representative sample in China were included; the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 was used to assess motor function, and a questionnaire was completed by parents. DCD was identified in 156 children according to the DSM-5 criteria. Multilevel logistic regression was used, and comparisons were made between the DCD and non-DCD group. The results confirmed that male sex, BMI score, preterm birth, and some prenatal conditions are significant risk factors for DCD. Parents’ education level and one-child status as two significant environmental risk factors for DCD appear largely independent of other risk factors in the Chinese population. This study provides an opportunity to explore the etiology of DCD and suggest potential assessment, monitoring and intervention programs for DCD that could be examined in the future.

It is widely assumed that by identifying spelling errors and suggesting replacement words, spellcheck allows writers to revise spelling errors even if they do not have the necessary spelling knowledge. However, there have been no studies evaluating the efficacy of modern spellcheck tools for students with spelling difficulties, such as dyslexia. In fact, the very limited and dated research into use of spellcheck by writers with dyslexia indicated that, even when using spellcheck to revise spelling errors, this group left many misspellings in their texts. The current study is the first to investigate whether a modern spellcheck program allows college students with dyslexia to produce texts that are as free from misspellings as texts by their peers, and whether this affects the quality of the text in other ways. College students with dyslexia (n=18) and a control group of peers (n=18) wrote two short essays using Microsoft Word, one with spellcheck active and one without spellcheck active. Spelling accuracy and overall quality of the texts were measured. Without spellcheck, students with dyslexia made more misspellings than the control group, however, with spellcheck active students from both groups left almost zero misspelled words in their texts. Text quality was not affected. Results demonstrate that spellcheck helps college students with dyslexia to overcome the limitations that poor spelling knowledge imposes. Importantly, results indicate that spellcheck does not lead to improvements in text beyond spelling accuracy, or lead to poorer quality texts, indicating that it is suitable for use in exam conditions.

Background: Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have motor difficulties which impact their everyday activities. Difficulties with Executive Function (EF) are commonly reported with relationships between EF and motor skills poorly understood. A key component of EF is Inhibition, important for classroom learning and less explored in children with DCD. Study One aimed to investigate the EF skills of children with and without DCD focusing on Inhibition, and Study Two aimed to examine relationships between Inhibition and motor skills. Method: Participants were 25 children with DCD aged six-ten years, and 25 age and gender matched typically developing (TD) children. They completed experimental measures of Inhibition, standardised tests of motor and EF skills, and parents and teachers completed standardised EF questionnaires. Results: Study One. Children with DCD had significantly poorer performance on some experimental and standardised measures of Inhibition and on parent and teacher reports of overall EF skills. Inhibition difficulties were reported by parents but not teachers. Results emphasize the potential for task and environmental demands to influence EF and Inhibition performance. Study Two. Significant relationships between at least one Inhibition measure and all areas of motor skills were found across groups. However, relationships differed across motor domains and Inhibition measures. Many within group correlations were also significant, although there was variation across the DCD and TD groups. This suggests that relationships between EF and motor skills are different for those with and without DCD. Conclusion: Children with DCD have difficulties with Inhibition across a range of measures and some aspects of performance are associated with their level of motor skills. The motor and Inhibition difficulties observed in children with DCD appear to be interdependent. Assessment of children with DCD should include an examination of Inhibition ski

The Test component of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (Movement ABC-2) is used worldwide to identify children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). In China, practitioners have been using this test with the assumption that the published UK norms are valid for Chinese children. However no systematic investigation has previously been undertaken to check this assumption. 2185 children aged 3–10 years old from a national representative sample in China were therefore recruited to the current study. Performance on the Movement ABC-2 was assessed and compared with the UK standardization norms. Gender differences were also examined. The comparisons revealed that Chinese children were generally better in Manual Dexterity and Balance tasks compared to their UK peers; while UK children were better in Aiming & Catching tasks. Further analysis showed an interaction of country and age with mixed results. For both countries, girls were generally better in Manual Dexterity and Balance tasks, and boys were generally better in Aiming & Catching. Possible explanations for the country differences are discussed. The results suggest that local norms for the Movement ABC-2 Test are needed in China.

Aim. These international clinical practice recommendations (CPR) for developmental coordination disorder (DCD), initiated by the European Academy of Childhood Disability (EACD), aim to address key questions on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of DCD relevant for clinical practice. Method. Key questions in five areas were considered through literature reviews and formal expert consensus. For recommendations based on evidence, literature searches on ‘mechanisms’, ‘assessment’, and ‘intervention’ were updated since the last recommendations in 2012. New searches were conducted for ‘psychosocial issues’ and ‘adolescents/adults’. Evidence was rated according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (level of evidence [LOE] 1–4) and transferred into recommendations. For recommendations based on formal consensus, two meetings of an international, multidisciplinary expert panel were conducted with a further five Delphi rounds to develop good clinical practice (GCP) recommendations. Results. Thirty-five recommendations were made. Eight were based on the evidence from literature reviews (three on ‘assessment’, five on ‘intervention’). Twenty-two were updated from the 2012 recommendations. New recommendations relate to diagnosis and assessment (two GCPs) and psychosocial issues (three GCPs). Additionally, one new recommendation (LOE) reflects active video games as adjuncts to more traditional activity-oriented and participation-oriented interventions, and two new recommendations (one GCP, one LOE) were made for adolescents and adults with DCD. Interpretation. The CPR–DCD is a comprehensive overview of DCD and current understanding based on research evidence and expert consensus. It reflects the state of the art for clinicians and scientists of varied disciplines. The international CPR–DCD may serve as a basis for national guidelines.

Editorial.

AIM: These international clinical practice recommendations (CPR) for developmental coordination disorder (DCD), initiated by the European Academy of Childhood Disability (EACD), aim to address key questions on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of DCD relevant for clinical practice. METHOD: Key questions in five areas were considered through literature reviews and formal expert consensus. For recommendations based on evidence, literature searches on 'mechanisms', 'assessment', and 'intervention' were updated since the last recommendations in 2012. New searches were conducted for 'psychosocial issues' and 'adolescents/adults'. Evidence was rated according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (level of evidence [LOE] 1-4) and transferred into recommendations. For recommendations based on formal consensus, two meetings of an international, multidisciplinary expert panel were conducted with a further five Delphi rounds to develop good clinical practice (GCP) recommendations. RESULTS: Thirty-five recommendations were made. Eight were based on the evidence from literature reviews (three on 'assessment', five on 'intervention'). Twenty-two were updated from the 2012 recommendations. New recommendations relate to diagnosis and assessment (two GCPs) and psychosocial issues (three GCPs). Additionally, one new recommendation (LOE) reflects active video games as adjuncts to more traditional activity-oriented and participation-oriented interventions, and two new recommendations (one GCP, one LOE) were made for adolescents and adults with DCD. INTERPRETATION: The CPR-DCD is a comprehensive overview of DCD and current understanding based on research evidence and expert consensus. It reflects the state of the art for clinicians and scientists of varied disciplines. The international CPR-DCD may serve as a basis for national guidelines. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Updated international clinical practice guidelines on developmental coo

Background. The standardized test within the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) is used worldwide to assess motor problems in children. Ideally, any country using a test developed in another country should produce national norms to ensure that it functions effectively in the new context. Aim. The first objective of this study was to explore the differences in motor performance between Italian and British children. The second was to examine the structural validity of the test for the Italian sample. Method. A total of 718 Italian (IT) and 765 British (UK) children, aged 3–10 years, were individually tested on the age-appropriate items of the MABC-2 Test. Results. Developmental trends emerged on every task and differences between IT and UK children were obtained on 11 of 27 task comparisons. Interactions between age and country indicated that differences were not consistently in favor of one culture. Confirmatory factor analysis generally supported the proposed structure of the MABC-2 Test. Conclusion. Although the differences between the IT and the UK children were relatively few, those that did emerge emphasize the need for population specific norms and suggest that cultural diversity in motor experiences should be considered when evaluating motor abilities in children.

Movement, which draws on motor skills and executive functions for managing them, plays an important role in literacy learning (e.g., movement of mouth during oral reading and movement of hand and fingers during writing); but relatively little research has focused on movement skills in students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) as the current study did. Parents completed normed Movement Assessment Battery for Children Checklist - 2nd edition (ABC-2), ratings and their children in grades 4 to 9 (M=11 years, 11 months; 94 boys, 61 girls) completed diagnostic assessment used to assign them to diagnostic groups: control typical language learning (N=42), dysgraphia (impaired handwriting) (N=29), dyslexia (impaired word decoding/reading and spelling) (N=65), or oral and written language learning disability (OWL LD) (impaired syntax in oral and written language) (N=19). The research aims were to (a) correlate the Movement ABC-2 parent ratings for Scale A Static/ Predictable Environment (15 items) and Scale B Dynamic/ Unpredictable Environment (15 items) with reading and writing achievement in total sample varying within and across different skills; and (b) compare each SLD group with the control group on Movement ABC-2 parent ratings for Scale A, Scale B, and Scale C Movement-Related (Non-Motor Executive Functions, or Self-Efficacy, or Affect) (13 items). At least one Movement ABC-2 parent rating was correlated with each assessed literacy achievement skill. Each of three SLD groups differed from the control group on two Scale A (static/ predictable environment) (fastens buttons and forms letters with pencil or pen) and on three Scale C (non-motor, movement-related) (distractibility, overactive, and underestimates own ability) items; but only OWL LD differed from control on Scale B (dynamic/unpredictable) items. Applications of findings to assessment and instruction for students ascertained for and diagnosed with persisting SLDs in literacy learning, and future rese

The nature of handwriting difficulties have been explored in children with specific developmental disorders. The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of handwriting difficulties in children with dysgraphia, a less studied group who have significant handwriting difficulties in the absence of motor control or cognitive difficulties. The performance of a dysgraphia group aged 8-14 years was compared to a group with Developmental Coordination Disorder and to typically developing (TD) controls. Participants completed two handwriting tasks on a digitizing writing tablet. The amount and accuracy of the handwriting product was measured, plus various temporal and spatial features of the writing process. There were no significant differences in performance between the two groups with handwriting difficulties but both performed more poorly than the TD group. Individual differences in the type and severity of handwriting impairments suggest the need for a range of classroom assessments to tailor intervention appropriately.

Aims. This discussion paper proposes a five-part theoretical framework to inform recruitment strategies. The framework is based on a marketing model of consumer decision-making. Background. Respondents in surveys are typically healthier than non-respondents, which has an impact on the availability of information about those most in need. Previous research has identified response patterns, provided theories about why people participate in research and evaluated different recruitment strategies. Social marketing has been applied successfully to recruitment and promotes focus on the needs of the participant, but little attention has been paid to the periods before and after participant-researcher contact (during advertising and following completion of studies). We propose a new model which conceptualises participation as a decision involving motivation, perception of information, attitude formation, integration of intention and action and finally evaluation and sharing of experience. Design. Discussion paper. Data sources. This discussion paper presents a critical review. No literature was excluded on date and the included citations span the years 1981 - 2017. Implications for nursing. The proposed framework suggests that researchers could engage a broader demographic if they shape research design and advertising to perform functions that participants are seeking to achieve. The framework provides a novel and useful conceptualisation of recruitment which could help to inform public engagement in research design, researcher training and research policy. Conclusion. This framework challenges researchers to investigate the goals of the potential participants when designing a study's advertising and procedures.

​Obstacles often appear unexpectedly in our pathway and these require us to make adjustments to avoid collision. Previous research has demonstrated that healthy adults will make anticipatory adjustments to gait where they have been told there is the possibility of an obstacle appearing. One population that may find this type of anticipatory movement difficult is individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The current study considered how individuals with and without DCD adjust to the possibility of an obstacle appearing which would require circumvention. Forty four individuals with DCD and 44 agematched controls (aged from 7-34 years of age) walked down an 11m walkway under three conditions. Initially they were told this was a clear pathway and nothing in the environment would change (1, no possibility of an obstacle, no obstacle). They then performed a series of trials in which a gate may (2, possibility of an obstacle, obstacle) or may not (3, possibility of an obstacle, no obstacle) partially obstruct their pathway. We found that all participants increased medio-lateral trunk acceleration when there was the possibility of an obstacle but before the obstacle appeared, in addition the typical adults and older children also increased step width. When describing circumvention we found that the younger children showed an increase in trunk velocity and acceleration in all three directions compared to older children and adults. We also found that the individuals with DCD adjusted their path sooner and deviated more than their peers. The degree of adjustment to step width in anticipation of an obstacle was related to later medio-lateral velocity and timing of the deviation. Therefore, the lack of ‘readying’ the system where there is the possibility of an obstacle appearing seen in the individuals with DCD and the younger typical children may explain the increased mediolateral velocity seen during circumvention.