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Publikacja recenzowana / Peer-reviewed publication Transformations of education in changing Europe are multifaceted. One of the latter is the process of strengthening the cooperation among universities in this part of the world. This cooperation is carried out in many fields – from joint projects and researches – to joint analyses, discourses and publications. This monograph – a collection of reflections, thoughts and polemics deriving from theoretical and empirical researches, carried out as a part of a joint research project simultaneously undertaken at both these universities under the name “Problems and challenges of modern education” – constitutes one of the fruits of the cooperation between Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Cracow University and the University of Ljubljana.

Praca recenzowana / peer-reviewed paper

V magistrskem delu obravnavamo problematiko možnosti uveljavljanja notranje učne diferenciacije in načel individualizacije pri pouku angleščine, v tretjem vzgojno-izobraževalnem obdobju osnovne šole. V teoretičnem delu opredelimo načine spoznavanja učencev, njihovih posebnosti in razlik med njimi, saj na njih temelji učinkovitost diferenciranja in individualiziranja. V nadaljevanju razlikujemo med pojmoma diferenciacija in individualizacija ter pojasnimo njuno povezanost. Opišemo tri sisteme diferenciranja, od katerih podrobneje razjasnimo notranjo učno diferenciacijo in individualizacijo ter njena podsistema: didaktično-metodični in ciljno-vsebinski model. Izpostavimo tudi zahtevnost izvajanja notranje učne diferenciacije in individualizacije pri poučevanju tujega jezika angleščine. V empiričnem delu ugotavljamo, da učitelji učence najpogosteje spoznavajo s pomočjo formalne in neformalne komunikacije z njimi. Rezultati kažejo, da učitelji največ znanja za uspešno prilagajanje pouka pridobijo iz prakse poučevanja in v strokovni komunikaciji s kolegi ter da potrebujejo nenehno izobraževanje na tem področju. Pri načrtovanju pouka, prilagoditve večinoma upoštevajo za učence s posebnimi potrebami, v didaktičnem smislu pa najpogosteje diferencirajo pouk po didaktično-metodičnem in ciljno-vsebinskem modelu notranje učne diferenciacije in individualizacije. Rezultati raziskave tudi kažejo, da učiteljem tuji učbeniki za poučevanje angleščine niso v pomoč pri prilagajanju pouka, zato učitelji običajno oblikujejo lastna gradiva za različne učence. This MA thesis deals with the possibility of applying the principles of differentiation and individualisation in the third three-year cycle of primary school ELT classrooms. The theoretical part defines various approaches of recognising differences among pupils which are essential for successful and effective implementation of differentiation and individualisation. Furthermore, we explain how the two terms, differentiation and individualisation differ and how they are intertwined. The thesis further presents three differentiation systems, among which internal learning differentiation and individualisation in EFL classes is of special interest to us, as well as its two sub-systems: a didactic-methodical model and goal and a content-oriented model. In this respect, the thesis highlights the difficulties the teachers of English language experience in the process of adapting the lesson to a group of students or to every individual. The empirical part presents how teachers implement internal learning differentiation and individualisation in ELT classes. The results show that formal and informal communication with students help teachers to recognise the differences among them. Additionally, teachers acquire essential knowledge for differentiation and individualisation from their daily teaching practice, from professional interaction with colleagues and as the results show, they need further, continuous professional education in this field. When planning the lessons, they most often consider differentiation for the students with special needs and implement didactic-methodical and goal and content-oriented methods. The results also show that teaching-learning materials used in English lessons aren't sufficient enough for differentiation, therefore teachers often create their own materials suitable for different students.

V magistrskemu delu nas je primarno zanimalo kako osnovnošolski učitelji pojmujejo formativno spremljanje in kakšne razlike v pogostosti izvajanja dejavnosti, ki so značilne za formativno spremljanje, lahko zaznamo med njimi. Glede na zastavljen cilj smo v teoretičnem delu najprej opravili zgodovinski pregled razvoja omenjenega koncepta – od behavioristično zastavljene kurikularne evalvacije v 60. letih prejšnjega stoletja do današnjega konstruktivističnega razumevanja spremljanja za spodbujanje učenja. Zatem smo izpostavili nekatere dileme prevodnih rešitev za termin formative assessment in prikazali razvoj slovenskega modela formativnega spremljanja. Ker gre za koncept, ki je v naš prostor vstopil iz anglosaškega sveta, smo se v teoretičnem delu posvetili tudi analizi podobnosti in razlik med formativnim spremljanjem in v našem prostoru predhodno že prisotnimi sorodnimi didaktičnimi koncepti – načelo učne aktivnosti, načelo diferenciacije in individualizacije učnega procesa, preverjanje znanja in ocenjevanje znanja. Ker pri delu stroke lahko zasledimo želje po zamenjavi oz. dopolnitvi obstoječega modela ocenjevanja znanja s formativnim spremljanjem, pa smo v teoretičnem delu opravili tudi premislek o teh namerah. Za namen raziskave smo z anketnim vprašalnikom zbrali odgovore 214-ih respondentov. S pomočjo zbranih odgovorov smo nato preučili različne vidike razumevanja formativnega spremljanja pri učiteljih – vidik omogočanja učne aktivnosti, motivacije učencev za učenje, učne individualizacije ter dojemanje razmerja med formativnim spremljanjem, preverjanjem in ocenjevanjem znanja. V manjšem obsegu smo se posvetili tudi analizi pogostosti izvajanja dejavnosti formativnega spremljanja pri pouku – npr. zbiranje dokazov o učnih dosežkih učencev, vključenost učencev v načrtovanje ciljev učenja in kriterijev njihovega doseganja ter dejavna vključenost učencev v končno vrednotenje lastnega znanja. V empiričnem delu smo odgovarjali na štirinajst raziskovalnih vprašanj. Dve od spoznanj do katerih smo uspeli priti sta, da formativno spremljanje v Sloveniji večinoma izvajajo učitelji z večletnimi izkušnjami v praksi iz česar gre predvidevati, da se bodoči učitelji s konceptom spoznajo predvsem z vstopom v šolsko prakso skoraj polovica anketiranih učiteljev pa se strinja z idejo, da bi formativno spremljanje moralo nadomestiti obstoječe ocenjevanje znanja, četudi ga v večini dojemajo kot obliko preverjanja znanja. In the master thesis we were primarily interested in finding out how primary school teachers perceive formative assessment and what differences can be detected in the frequency of formative assessment activities used in class. In light of the set goal, we first performed a historical overview of the concepts’ development - from the behaviourist curricular evaluation in the 60s of the last century to today's constructivist understanding of assessment for learning. Next, we turned our attention to the development of the Slovenian formative assessment model and also highlighted some dilemmas concerning translation of the term formative assessment to Slovene term formativno spremljanje. Since it is a concept that that was originally formed in the Anglo-Saxon world, we then analysed the similarities and differences between formative assessment and related concepts previously already present Slovenia - the didactic principle of learning activity, the didactic principle of differentiation and individualization of the learning process, pre-grading knowledge verification and the knowledge assessment that comes by the end of learning process and is typically associated with final grading of students’ knowledge. Since the desire to replace the existing model of final knowledge assessment with formative assessment is present among some Slovenian authors, we also reflected on these intentions. For the purpose of research, we collected the answers of 214 respondents by the use of questionnaire. With the help of the collected answers, we then examined various aspects of teachers' understandings of formative assessment - from the point of enabling learning activity, student motivation for learning, learning individualization and from the point of perception of the relation between formative assessment, pre-grading verification of acquired knowledge and final knowledge assessment which is typically associated with final grading. On a smaller scale we also analysed the frequency of formative assessment activities used during the in-class lessons - e.g. collection of evidence about the learning achievements of students, involvement of students in the planning of learning goals and criteria for their achievement, and active involvement of students in the final evaluation of their own knowledge. In the empirical part, we answered fourteen research questions. Two of the insights we managed to come to are that formative assessment is in Slovenia mostly carried out by teachers with many years of experience in practice, from which it can be assumed that teachers are mostly introduced to the concept by entering school practice, and that almost half of the teachers agree with the idea that formative assessment should replace existing final knowledge assessment, even though the majority perceives it as a form of pre-grading knowledge verification.

Magistrska naloga proučuje in predstavlja zgodovinski razvoj vpenjanja tehnologije najprej v družbeni, nato pa še v šolski prostor in s tem spreminjanje vzgojno-izobraževalne prakse. S temo nas seznani v treh delih. V prvem delu predstavi sociološke teoretske premisleke o odnosu med človekom in njegovim tehnološkim okoljem in nadaljuje s predstavitvijo sodobnih tehnoloških sprememb, ki jih narekujejo novi mediji. Nazadnje se dotakne dveh pomembnih družbenih problemov, povezanih tudi z vzgojno-izobraževalnim področjem, tj. omajanje primata pisave in eksternalizacija spomina. V drugem delu naloga preide na konkretnejše primere tehnološkega spreminjanja vzgojno-izobraževalnih procesov in v slovenskem prostoru predstavi zgodovinski razvoj sodobne izobraževalne tehnologije od začetka 20. stoletja do danes. V tretjem delu se osredotočamo na pregled usmeritev ključnih političnih dokumentov na ravni Evropske unije ter na nacionalni ravni, ki predstavljajo podporo prilagajanju sistemov vzgoje in izobraževanja temu, kar imenujejo »digitalna doba«. Predstavljene intence dokumentov v sklepnem poglavju besedila prevprašujemo s širšega pedagoškega vidika. This master's thesis examines and presents the historical development of the incorporation of technology, first in the social and then in the educational space, and the resulting changes in educational practice. It presents the topic in three parts. The first presents sociological theoretical perspectives on the relationship between man and his technological environment and goes on to present contemporary technological changes dictated by the new media. Finally, it touches on two important social problems, also linked to the educational sphere, namely the diminishing supremacy of writing and the externalisation of memory. In the second part, the thesis moves on to more concrete examples of technological change in educational contex and presents the historical development of modern educational technology in Slovenia from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day. In the third part, we focus on an overview of the orientations of key policy documents at the European Union and national level, which represent support for the adaptation of education and training systems to what they call the "digital age". In the concluding section of the text, we reflect the documents' intentions from a broader pedagogical perspective.

Kljub vse hitrejšemu razvoju na področju izobraževalne tehnologije branje še vedno predstavlja glavni vir pridobivanja informacij in znanja tako v zasebnem življenju kot tudi v šoli. V procesu učenja se od bralcev pričakuje, da bodo prebrano razumeli, iz prebranega izluščili bistvo, si nato zapomnili glavne informacije in jih smiselno uporabili na drugih področjih življenja. Tako kot v vsaki drugi spretnosti se je tudi v branju treba izuriti. Za učinkovito branje je nujno poznavanje različnih bralnih učnih strategij, kar učencem omogoča, da informacije ne le spoznajo, ampak jih znajo glede na potrebe tudi izbrati ter smiselno in učinkovito uporabiti. Bralne učne strategije so zelo pomembne tudi pri učenju tujega jezika, saj prispevajo k boljšemu razumevanju celotnega besedila in povezovanju novih informacij z že znanimi ter omogočajo lažjo in hitrejšo zapomnitev novega gradiva. Učencem pomagajo premostiti številne jezikovne in nejezikovne ovire, na katere naletijo pri učenju tujega jezika, hkrati pa jih spodbujajo k usmerjanju lastnega procesa učenja do končnega cilja. Osnovni namen magistrskega dela je bil ugotoviti, kaj učenci menijo o uporabi izbranih kompleksnih bralnih učnih strategij, natančneje strategije PV3P in Paukove strategije, pri pouku italijanščine kot tujega jezika. Posledično so nas zanimale tudi razlike v mnenjih o uporabnosti in učinkovitosti med seboj primerjanih strategij. Želeli smo izvedeli, v kolikšni meri izbrani kompleksni bralni učni strategiji po mnenju učencev vplivata na pomnjenje snovi ter kakšna je stopnja motiviranosti za nadaljnje delo s pomočjo izbranih kompleksnih bralnih učnih strategij pri pouku italijanščine kot tujega jezika in pri pouku nasploh. Izsledki raziskave so pokazali, da sta obe preizkušeni bralni učni strategiji po mnenju učencev učinkoviti pri učenju italijanščine kot tujega jezika. Toda pri obeh so učenci poleg številnih prednosti opazili tudi nekaj pomanjkljivosti. Največja težava, ki se je pojavila pri obeh preizkušenih strategijah, je bila, da učenci niso znali določiti glavne ideje prebranih besedil ter da niso bili sposobni razlikovati med pomembnimi in manj pomembnimi oziroma nepomembnimi informacijami. Rezultati kažejo, da bi učenci, predvsem zaradi lažje izpeljave korakov in grafičnega prikaza informacij, v prihodnje raje uporabili Paukovo strategijo. Čeprav so izpostavili, da je izvedba strategije PV3P precej zahtevna, so omenjeno strategijo ocenili kot uporabno pri različnih šolskih predmetih. Despite the increasing development in the field of educational technology, reading still represents the main source of information and knowledge, both in private life and at school. In the learning process, readers are expected to read the text with understanding, extract the main text content, then memorize the main information, transfer and use it in other areas of life. Just like any other skill, reading needs a lot of practice. Knowledge of different reading learning strategies is essential for effective reading, as this allows pupils not only to learn about the information, but also to select it according to their needs and to use it in a meaningful and efficient manner. Reading learning strategies also play an important role in learning a foreign language, as they help students to understand the text as a whole, to include new information in already existing cognitive structure and to remember new material easier and quicker. They also help pupils to overcome many linguistic and non-linguistic barriers that occur during learning a foreign language and they can also help them to guide their own learning process to their final goal. The main purpose of master's thesis was to determine the opinion of pupils on the use of selected complex reading learning strategies, the Strategy SQ3R and The Cornell Strategy, in teaching Italian as a foreign language. Therefore, we were also interested in the differences of opinion regarding the usefulness and effectiveness of the strategies compared to each other. We were also wondering what pupils think about the impact of selected reading learning strategies on memorization of studying material and the level of motivation to continue working with both reading learning strategies in Italian classes and classes in general. The results show that according to the students both tested strategies proved to be efficient in learning Italian as a foreign language. However, despite many advantages, the students in both strategies also noticed some disadvantages. The biggest problem of all in both was that pupils could not identify the main text idea and were not able to distinguish between important and less important or irrelevant information. The results show that, mostly because of easier derivation of steps and visual display of information, pupils would prefer to use The Cornell Strategy in the future. Although they pointed out that the implementation of The Strategy SQ3R was quite challenging, it was considered useful in various school subjects.

V magistrskem delu nas je zanimalo, kako so se osnovne šole v času prvega vala epidemije covid-19 soočale z izobraževanjem na daljavo ter kako je v tem obdobju potekalo ocenjevanje znanja. Predstavili smo, katere ukrepe in priporočila sta izdajali šolska politika in del pedagoške stroke, ter izpostavili njihove bistvene predloge za načrtovanje in izvedbo poučevanja in ocenjevanja znanja. Ob tem smo naredili pregled odzivov dela pedagoške stroke o delovanju šolske politike v času prvega vala epidemije covid-19 ter predstavili posledice izobraževanja na daljavo za učence. Zanimalo nas je, ali obstajajo indici, na podlagi katerih bi lahko podvomili, da so bile ocene, ki so jih učenci pridobili v tem obdobju, odraz znanja, zaradi česar smo se ukvarjali s pojmoma pravično in didaktično dopustno ocenjevanje, ter na podlagi predhodno opravljenih empiričnih raziskav ter prispevkov avtoric in avtorjev, povezanih s prvim valom epidemije covid-19, ugotavljali, ali so bili učenci prikrajšani za znanje. V raziskavi smo uporabili deskriptivno in kavzalno-neeksperimentalno raziskovalno metodo, s katero smo na podlagi empiričnih podatkov, pridobljenih z anketnima vprašalnikoma za učitelje in učence, preverjali petnajst raziskovalnih hipotez. Zanimalo nas je, ali so bili po njihovem mnenju učenci v času prvega vala epidemije covid-19 ocenjeni na podlagi enakih kriterijev, kot bi bili v običajnih razmerah, ter ali je bilo poučevanje na daljavo izvedeno dovolj didaktično kakovostno, da je bilo ocenjevanje znanja kasneje tudi upravičeno. Podatki so pokazali, da se je več kot polovica anketiranih učiteljev deloma strinjala, da so pouk v času izobraževanja na daljavo lahko izvedli dovolj didaktično kakovostno, da je bilo kasneje upravičeno tudi ocenjevanje znanja. Več kot polovica učencev je menila, da so učitelji dajali višje ocene, kot bi jih sicer, če šole ne bi bile zaprte. Skoraj polovica učiteljev pa se je deloma strinjala s trditvijo, da so bili učenci ocenjeni na podlagi enaki kriterijev znanja, medtem ko se s to trditvijo ni strinjala več kot tretjina učiteljev. Ugotovili smo, da so učitelji zniževali kriterije znanja, saj poučevanja na daljavo niso mogli izpeljati didaktično kakovostno ali pa so se želeli izogniti konfliktnim situacijam in morebitnim inšpekcijskim postopkom. Opozorili smo, da ocene učencev niso bile odraz znanja, zato smo predpostavili, da bo v znanju učencev opaziti velik manko. In the master thesis, we were interested in how primary schools coped with distance education during the first wave of the covid-19 epidemic and how assessment was carried out during this period. We presented what measures and recommendations were adopted by school policy and part of the teaching profession, and highlighted their essential suggestions for the planning and implementation of teaching and assessment. In addition, we reviewed the reactions of some of the teaching profession on the functioning of school policy during the first wave of the covid-19 epidemic, and presented the implications of distance education for students. We were interested in whether there were any indications that might raise doubt on whether the grades obtained by students during this period were truly a reflection of knowledge, which eventually led us to explore the notions of fair and didactically permissible assessment, and to determine whether students were deprived of knowledge, based on previous empirical research and on the contributions of authors related to the first wave of the covid-19 epidemic. In the research, we used a descriptive and causal non-experimental research method to test fifteen research hypotheses based on empirical data collected through teacher and student questionnaires. We were interested in whether they thought that students were assessed on the same criteria during the first wave of the covid-19 epidemic as they would have been under normal conditions, and whether the distance education was of sufficient didactic quality to justify the assessment of their knowledge afterwards. The data showed that more than half of the teachers surveyed partially agreed that the distance education lessons could be delivered with sufficient didactic quality to justify the assessment of knowledge at a later stage. More than half of the students felt, however, that the teachers gave higher grades than they would have if the schools had not been closed. However, almost half of the teachers partially agreed with the statement that students' knowledge was assessed according to the same criteria, while more than a third of teachers disagreed with this statement. We found that teachers had lowered the knowledge criteria because they had not been able to carry out the distance learning in a didactically qualitative way or because they had wanted to avoid conflict situations and possible inspection procedures. We pointed out that the students' grades were not a reflection of their knowledge. We have, therefore, assumed that there would be a significant shortfall in their knowledge.

V pričujočem magistrskem delu obravnavamo problematiko ravnateljevega pedagoškega vodenja. Zakon o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja (2017) določa, da je ravnatelj tako pedagoški kot upravni vodja šole in mu nalaga strokovne naloge, med katerimi je tudi strokovna podpora učiteljem. Decentralizacija šolstva in sodobne zahteve okolja so spremenile položaj in naloge ravnatelja. Ta je odgovoren za kakovostno delo šole, distribucijo vlog v šoli, hkrati pa mora upoštevati participacijo tako zaposlenih kot učencev in staršev. Med pomembnejšimi nalogami tako izstopajo oblikovanje načrta razvoja šole, povezovanje šole z okoljem, usposabljanje in motiviranje zaposlenih ter spremljanje in evalvacija šolskega dela. Pri strokovni podpori učiteljem se osredotočimo na področje hospitacij, saj preko njih ravnatelj spremlja in pripomore k profesionalnemu razvoju učiteljev in k zagotavljanju kakovosti pedagoškega dela. Preko hospitacij in ustrezne povratne informacije lahko ravnatelj učitelja motivira za bolj kakovostno delo v razredu. Na podlagi teoretičnih spoznanj v empiričnem delu tako osvetlimo, kako učitelji doživljajo strokovno podporo ravnatelja. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 175 učiteljev iz slovenskih osnovnih šol. Rezultati ankete so pokazali, da večina učiteljev meni, da ravnatelj kakovostno opravlja pedagoško vodenje. Prav tako učitelji ocenjujejo, da je odnos ravnatelja do nadaljnjega strokovnega izobraževanja strokovnih delavcev pozitiven, da jih ravnatelj pogosto spodbuja k udeležbi na strokovnih izobraževanjih in so s tem odnosom zadovoljni. Prav tako so zadovoljni s podporo ravnatelja pri uvajanju sprememb in inovacij v pouk. Rezultati so pokazali, da ravnatelji hospitacije izvajajo redko, da se učitelji na hospitirano uro pogosto posebej pripravijo, a je ne izvedejo drugače, menijo, da so hospitacije smiselne ter da so s povratno informacijo po hospitaciji zadovoljni in jih za nadaljnje delo motivira. In the present Masters's Thesis we discuss the issue of the headmaster’s pedagogical leadership. Zakon o organizaciji in financiranju vzgoje in izobraževanja (The Law of Organization and Financing of Education, 2017) states that the headmaster is both a pedagogical and administrative head of the school and imposes on him professional tasks, including professional support for teachers. The position and tasks of the headmaster have changed in light of the decentralization of education and modern demands of the environment. He is responsible for the quality of work and the distribution of roles in the school while simultaneously taking in consideration the participation of the employees, students and parents. Among the more important tasks are designing a school development plan, connecting the school with the environment, qualifying and motivating employees and monitoring and evaluating schoolwork. In professional support for teachers, we focus on the field of class observation, because through it the headmaster monitors and contributes to the professional development of teachers and ensures the quality of pedagogical work. Through class observations and appropriate feedback, the headmaster can motivate the teachers to carry out higher-quality work in the classroom. Based on the theoretical findings in the empirical part we enlighten how the teachers experience the professional support from the headmaster. 175 teachers form Slovenian primary schools participated in the survey. The results showed that the majority of teachers believe that the headmaster is providing quality pedagogical guidance. Teachers also believe that the headmaster’s attitude towards further professional education of employees is positive, that headmaster often encourages them to participate in professional training and are satisfied with the exhibited attitude. They are also satisfied with the headmaster’s support in introducing change and innovation to the classroom. The results showed that the headmasters rarely observe teacher’s classes, that teachers often prepare for those observations but do not carry them out differently, that they think that the class observations are reasonable and that they are satisfied with the feedback after the observations as it motivates them for further work.

Učitelji slovenščine se pri svojem delu srečujejo z različnimi skupinami otrok, med drugim tudi z učenci s posebnimi potrebami. V magistrskem delu smo se osredotočili predvsem na učiteljevo delo z učenci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami pri pouku književnosti v osnovni šoli. Skušali smo osvetliti vlogo učitelja slovenščine v osnovni šoli, ki je ključna oseba pri izvajanju prilagoditev, s katerimi lahko tem učencem zmanjšujemo ovire pri usvajanju in izražanju znanja ter pri pridobivanju spodbudnih izkušenj z branjem in razumevanjem umetnostnih besedil. Teoretični del je zasnovan na opredelitvi konceptov integracije in inkluzije ter socialne integracije otrok s posebnimi potrebami, ki predstavlja most med omenjenima konceptoma. Opisali smo načela, na katerih temelji inkluzivno izobraževanje ter predstavili ključne poudarke iz posameznih zakonskih aktov na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja otrok s posebnimi potrebami v osnovni šoli. Ker imajo otroci s posebnimi potrebami, zlasti otroci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami, pogosto pridružene tudi učne težave, smo predstavili petstopenjski model pomoči učencem z učnimi težavami. Otroci s posebnimi potrebami potrebujejo v procesu poučevanja drugačne pristope kot njihovi sovrstniki, zato je individualizacija poučevanja ključnega pomena za njihov uspeh. Dosežemo jo s pomočjo individualiziranega programa, katerega ključne značilnosti smo predstavili v nadaljevanju teoretičnega dela. Omenjena poglavja so nam služila kot uvod v jedro teoretičnega dela, ki je bil namenjen učencem z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami pri pouku književnosti. Natančneje smo opredelili govorno-jezikovne motnje ter predstavili splošne cilje pouka književnosti in metode pouka književnosti v osnovni šoli. Sledil je opis najpogostejših težav omenjenih učencev pri pouku književnosti in praktična priporočila za prilagoditve le-tega. V empiričnem delu smo predstavili rezultate kvalitativne raziskave, ki smo jih pridobili s pomočjo polstrukturiranih intervjujev s petimi učitelji slovenščine v osnovni šoli. Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kako se učitelji slovenščine soočajo s specifičnimi težavami učencev z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami in katerih prilagoditev pouka se poslužujejo. Ugotovili smo, da poskušajo učitelji omenjenim učencem prilagoditi različne faze pouka književnosti, ob tem pa se srečujejo s številnimi izzivi. In their work, Slovene language teachers are faced with different groups of children, including pupils with special needs. This master's degree mainly focuses on the teacher's work with pupils having speech and language disorders during literature class in primary school . It aims to shed light on the role of the Slovene language teacher in primary school, who is a key person to make all the necessary adjustments to reduce the obstacles these students encounter when acquiring and expressing their knowledge and also to help them gain encouraging experience with reading and understanding literary texts. The theoretical part is based on defining the concepts of both integration and inclusion as well as social integration of children with special needs, which represents the bridge between the two. Apart from describing the basic principles of inclusive education, special emphasis has been put on stressing the main articles in the legal acts concerning the education of children with special needs in primary school. As children with special needs, especially those with speech and language disorders, often struggle with learning, a five-step model of helping them has been presented. Bearing in mind that children with special needs require a different approach in the learning process than their peers, individualized teaching is the key to their success. It is achieved with the help of an individualized program, the key features of which have been presented in the continuation of the theoretical part. The above mentioned chapters have served as an introduction to the core of the theoretical part, which focuses on dealing with pupils with speech and language disorders in literature class in primary school. Speech and language disorders have been defined in more detail and the main aims and methods of teaching literature in primary school have been described. What follows is a description of the most common problems these students tend to go through during literature lessons and some practical recommendations to adapt the teaching process to meet their individual needs. The empirical part presents the results of a qualitative research obtained by carrying out semi-structured interviews with five Slovene language teachers in primary school. The purpose of this research was to find out how Slovene language teachers deal with these specific problems their pupils with speech and language disorders have and which adjustments they usually use. The results have shown that teachers try to adapt their literature lessons to meet the needs of such students, but are faced with a number of challenges while doing that.

Ocenjevanje znanja je pomemben in kompleksen del učnega procesa in hkrati ena najtežjih učiteljevih nalog. V prvem delu smo opredelili pojem ocenjevanje znanja, pregledali zakonodajo na tem področju ter opisali njegove namene in delitve. V nadaljevanju smo se osredotočili na ustno ocenjevanje znanja. Opisali smo značilnosti ustnega ocenjevanja znanja, na podlagi literature pa oblikovali predloge za njegovo učinkovito pripravo in izvedbo. Na koncu teoretičnega dela smo se posebej posvetili pripravi in izvedbi ustnega ocenjevanja znanja pri pouku geografije. V empiričnem delu smo izvedli kvalitativno metodo raziskovanja. Intervjuvali smo šest učiteljic geografije in pridobili vpogled v ustno ocenjevanje znanja pri geografiji. Ugotovili smo, da se učiteljice, posebej na začetku učiteljske poti, ne počutijo dovolj suverene pri njegovi izvedbi in se soočajo z raznimi težavami. V ta namen smo v zaključnem delu na podlagi literature in izsledkov raziskave oblikovali predloge za izvajanje ustnega ocenjevanja znanja pri pouku geografije. Knowledge assessment is an important and complex part of the learning process and at the same time one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher. In the first part of the present work the concept of knowledge assessment is defined together with a description of its purposes and systemization, and the applicable legislation is reviewed. The present work is focused on oral assessment of knowledge. We have described the characteristics of oral assessment of knowledge, and based on the literature, formulated suggestions for its effective preparation and implementation. Concluding the theoretical part, the work was focused on the preparation and implementation of oral assessment of knowledge in geography classes. The empirical part was based on a qualitative research method. Six female geography teachers were interviewed to obtain insights into oral assessment of geography knowledge. We have found that teachers do not feel sufficiently confident in their implementation of assessment and face various difficulties, especially at the beginning of their teaching career. Accordingly, based on the relevant literature and findings of our research, the final part of this work delivers suggestions on how to perform oral assessment of knowledge in geography lessons.

Magistrsko delo preučuje povratno informacijo in njeno vlogo v okviru dodiplomskega študija francistike. V teoretičnem delu naloge smo najprej preučili vlogo učitelja in medosebnega odnosa pri pouku in v učnem procesu, pri čemer smo medosebni odnos med učiteljem in učencem tudi natančno analizirali. Sledila je analiza zakonitosti in značilnosti komunikacije pri pouku, osredotočili smo se predvsem na preučevanje odnosov v komunikaciji med učiteljem in učencem. V tretjem delu teoretičnega dela smo prešli na ključno temo naše magistrske naloge, in sicer povratno informacijo kot način komunikacije med učiteljem in učencem. Povratno informacijo smo na podlagi strokovne literature najprej opredelili, nato pa podrobno analizirali načine sprejemanja, posredovanja in iskanja le-te. Sledila je podrobna analiza funkcij povratne informacije v procesu učenja, ki smo jih v grobem razdelili v dve skupini, in sicer na kognitivne funkcije in afektivno funkcijo. V tem poglavju smo analizirali še pojem kakovostna povratna informacija in natančno analizirali njene značilnosti. V empiričnem delu smo s pomočjo polstrukturiranega intervjuja ugotavljali stališča visokošolskih učiteljev in študentov dodiplomskega študija francistike do povratne informacije in njihova pričakovanja v zvezi s posredovanjem le-te. Zanimalo nas je, kakšen je po mnenju omenjenih učiteljev in študentov namen posredovanja povratne informacije, katere informacije bi po njihovem mnenju morala vsebovati ter na kakšen način in kako pogosto bi povratno informacijo morali posredovati oziroma prejeti. Poleg tega nas je zanimalo še, kdaj učiteljeva povratna informacije študente bolj motivira in kdaj bolj demotivira za delo, kakšne so po njihovem mnenju možne posledice upoštevanja oziroma neupoštevanja povratne informacije s strani študentov ter kako jim povratna informacija pomaga pri načrtovanju nadaljnjega učenja oziroma poučevanja. This Master thesis studies feedback and its role within the undergraduate French language studies. In the theoretical part of the thesis, we first examined the role of the teacher and the interpersonal relationship in the learning process. The interpersonal relationship between teacher and student was carefully studied in the first chapter. This was followed by an analysis of the principles and characteristics of communication in teaching, focusing primarily on the study of teacher-student communication relationships. In the third chapter of the theoretical part, we went over the key topic of our master's thesis – feedback, as a method of communication between teacher and student. Firstly, we defined feedback on the basis of professional literature, then we examined the ways of receiving, communicating and searching for it in detail. This was followed by a detailed analysis of the feedback functions in the learning process, which were roughly divided into two main groups: cognitive functions and affective function. In this section, we analysed the notion of quality feedback and its characteristics. In the empirical part, we used the semi-structured interview to determine the attitudes of higher education teachers and undergraduate French students to the feedback and their expectations regarding the provision of such feedback. We were interested in what is the purpose of providing feedback in the opinion of the aforementioned teachers and students, what information do they think they should contain, how and how often should feedback be offered or received. Finally, we were also interested in the cases where the teacher's feedback motivates the students and when it doesn’t motivate them to work, what do they think are the possible consequences of considering it, or not, and how feedback helps them plan for further learning and teaching.

V magistrskem delu smo proučili povratno informacijo, natančneje pisno korektivno povratno informacijo, ter njeno vlogo in uporabo med visokošolskimi učiteljicami italijanščine kot tujega jezika. V teoretičnem delu smo opredelili pouk, ki je kot komunikacijski proces ključen za razumevanje povratne informacije. Opisali smo povratno informacijo v pedagoškem diskurzu in predstavili vrste povratnih informacij. Med vsemi nas je najbolj zanimala pisna korektivna povratna informacija, ki se uporablja za korekturo pisnih napak. Naposled smo se osredotočili na različne vrste pisne korektivne povratne informacije in tako skozi poglede različnih strokovnjakov predstavili posredno, neposredno in metalingvistično pisno korektivno povratno informacijo. Osredotočili smo se na uporabnost omenjenih pisnih povratnih informacij, osvetlili njihove prednosti in pomanjkljivosti ter izpostavili tudi perečo temo o smiselnosti popravljanja pisnih slovničnih napak, ki jo v svojem strokovno-znanstvenem delu izpostavlja Truscott (1996). V empiričnem delu predstavljamo ugotovitve, pridobljene z analizo intervjujev. Ugotovili smo, da ima povratna informacija ključno vlogo v procesu vzgoje in izobraževanja na področju poučevanja tujih jezikov. Visokošolske učiteljice italijanščine, ki so sodelovale v naši raziskavi, podajajo povratno informacijo na različne načine, pri čemer se najpogosteje odločajo za ustno povratno informacijo ali njeno kombinacijo s pisno povratno informacijo. Ugotovili smo tudi, da so učiteljice do neke mere seznanjene s korekturo pisnih napak s sistemom simbolov ali kod/etiket, nekatere te sisteme tudi deloma uporabljajo. Pri korekturi pisnih napak najpogosteje uporabljajo kombinacijo posredne, neposredne in metalingvistične povratne informacije v vseh oblikah. The Master’s thesis aims to examine feedback, more specifically written corrective feedback, as well as its role and use among higher education teachers of Italian as a foreign language. In the theoretical part, we identify lessons that are crucial to understanding feedback as a communication process. We describe feedback in pedagogical discourse and present types of feedback, among which in particular written corrective feedback, which is used to correct written errors. Finally, we focus on different types of written corrective feedback and thus present indirect, direct, and metalinguistic written corrective feedback through the views of different professionals. We focus on the usefulness of the aforementioned written feedback, by pointing out their merits and drawbacks, and also highlight the pressing topic of the reasonableness of correcting grammatical errors, which is underlined by Truscott (1996) in his scientific work. In the empirical part, we provide the findings obtained through an analysis of the interviews. We find that feedback plays a key role in the education process in the field of foreign language teaching. Italian higher education teachers who participated in our study provide feedback in various ways, most often opting for oral feedback or combining it with written feedback. We also find that teachers are to some extent familiar with the correction of writing errors with a symbol or code/label system, and some of these systems are also partially used. Most often, they use a combination of indirect, direct, and metalinguistic feedback in all forms of error correction.

triletju osnovne šole V diplomskem delu je predstavljeno učiteljevo načrtovanje pouka pri jezikovnem pouku slovenščine. Učiteljeva učna priprava predstavlja osnovo za kakovostno izvedbo pouka slovenščine in je učitelju hkrati glavna opora pri poučevanju. V teoretičnem delu predstavimo osnovne pojme in ravni kurikularnega načrtovanja. Na učiteljeve učne priprave (načrtovanje na individualni ravni) vpliva kurikularno načrtovanje, ki je določeno na ravni države in institucije (šole). Učni načrt kot kurikularni dokument, oblikovan na ravni države, je pomembno izhodišče za učiteljevo individualno pripravo ter tudi vodilo v vseh nadaljnjih fazah pouka. Učitelj oblikuje letne ali globalne, tematske ali etapne in sprotne - operativne učne priprave. V fazi operativne učne priprave učitelj načrtuje izvedbo didaktičnih enot ali ur pouka. Za posamezno enoto oblikuje konkretne operativne cilje, pri tem mora paziti na taksonomske stopnje in primerno hierarhijo ciljev. Nadalje opredeli vsebine in dejavnosti ter načrtuje faze ali etape učnega procesa. Določi tudi predvidene učne metode in z njimi povezane učne oblike. Pomembna sestavina načrtovanja je tudi vrednotenje (preverjanje in ocenjevanje) znanja. Analiza operativnih učnih priprav za jezikovni pouk slovenščine pokaže različne oblike in načine pisanja učnih priprav. This diploma thesis presents how the teachers plan their lessons for classes of Slovene language. A teacher's lesson plan is the basis for a qualitatively performed period of Slovene language and is at the same time their main support for teaching. In the theoretical part of the thesis we present the basic concepts and levels of the curricular teaching. A teacher's lesson plans (planning on the individual level) are influenced by the curricular planning which is defined by the state and the institution (school). The curriculum is a document drafted on a state level and is an important starting point for the teacher's individual plan and also a guide for all the further class phases. The teacher prepares yearly or global, thematic or stage and simultaneous - operational lesson plans. In the operational lesson plan phase the teacher plans how to perform didactic units or periods of the class. The teacher prepares concrete operational aims for each unit taking into consideration the taxonomic stages and appropriate class aim hierarchy. Then the teacher defines the contents and activities and plans the phases or stages of the teaching process. The teacher also defines the teaching methods and forms they intend to use. An important part of the planning is also evaluation (knowledge testing and grading). The analysis of the operational lesson plans for Slovene language classes shows the use of different teaching forms and modes of preparing lesson plans.