Search

This article presents information on consumer price indexes in Great Britain. The tables are intended to show the movement of prices, during a series of years, for twenty-two commodities, in the English wholesale markets. Taking the average price for 1845-50, in every case, as the standard, represented by one hundred, the ratio of the price on January 1 and July 1 of every year is compared with this, the result being, in fact, a percentage. The sum of these percentages for twenty-two commodities is the index number for the year, as twenty-two hundred is the index number for 1845-50. Division by twenty-two reduces the series of index numbers to average percentages. The commodities selected are: coffee, sugar, tea, tobacco, wheat, butcher's meat, Surat cotton, raw silk, flax and hemp, wool, indigo, oils, timber, tallow, leather, copper, iron, lead, tin, Pernambuco cotton, cotton yarn, and cotton cloth. The relative importance of a commodity is reached by finding the relative proportions of the home trade in it, taking into account both quantities and values, to the total home trade in the twenty-two commodities.

The article discusses the system of public finance as established under Alexander Hamilton, former head of the U.S. Department of Treasury. It discusses the qualification of Hamilton and the huge work that was put forward. It discusses how he went about formulating a plan for a financial system based on experience of earlier financial systems, mainly the English financial system. Features of Hamilton's system of finance which are similar to those of the English system are his scheme for funding domestic debts, his plan for a sinking fund and the charter of the first Bank of the United States.

This article presents information related to the trade-unions of Great Britain. In Great Britain, the heat and consequent stratification of public opinion in regard to all questions which in any way trench upon conflicting social and political prejudices is so great, that facts which come to the inquirer through this medium are affected very much as objects are by the mirage stratification of hot air. The 252 unions which appear upon the books of the Registrar of Trade and Friendly Societies are by no means alike in details of constitution, method and purpose. The functions of the modern trades-union are often described as threefold--aggressive, defensive and benevolent. The first two have primarily to do with all the questions of wages, strikes, lock-outs and all the belligerent activities which attract attention and gain notoriety for the militant side of efforts to secure rights and defend those already obtained. There are the numerous purely local unions, embracing as many artisans in their respective localities and industries as can be persuaded to join an organization and pay regular assessments for mutual protection in wages and hours of labor, for out-of-work benefits, sick pay, burial funds and the like.

The article focuses on the problem of unemployment and measures taken to resolve it. Applicants of assistance to charity organization societies in England and the U.S. prefer occupation rather than relief. Charitable provision of work provided to the unemployed includes, transitory provision of work, education to the unemployed for regular self retaining existence, and the isolation of the poor class from the competitive industries of the time. Ommerschans and Veenhuizen are largest of the beggar colonies established in 1820.

The article discusses documents regarding U.S. history contained in the British Public Record Office. The author discusses the consolidation of several record storage offices as well as the British State Paper Office and notes the creation of the British Record Repository. He comments on his efforts to assist American diplomat George Bancroft in his research on U.S. history and describes historical documents related to U.S. in the Public Record Office, including colonial charters, papers from the British Board of Trade and correspondence with British secretaries of state in America. The chronological ordering of the records and the inaccuracy of some documents written by former British secretary of state Joseph Williamson are discussed.

The article focuses on the bimetallist committee of Boston, Massachusetts and New England. The Committee is formed for the purpose of promoting the establishment of international bimetallism upon the general plan of the Latin Union, but with a broader basis. Those concerned in the movement, while earnestly opposed to the free coinage or to any increased use of sliver by this country independently of international action and agreement. A number of associate members have been admitted from other portions of the country, and it is likely that co-operating committees will be created in several cities. The Committee does not propose to make use of any political agency, or to attempt to influence, otherwise than through public opinion, the action of the administration or of Congress. Its work is to be educational. It will endeavor to instruct the community in what it considers the only sound theory of hard money, that of international bimetallism, preparing the public sentiment of the country for the adoption of this so soon as Great Britain's concurrence can be secured. For this the committee does not think that the United States ought to sue.

Presents memorandums related to law and legislations of several economies as of February 1900. Details of changes made in German bank laws; Discussion on national and local taxation in Great Britain; Laws enacted by Holland and Switzerland for compulsory insurance of employees.

This article focuses on an overview of the iron industry in the U.S. as of January 1900. The protectionists themselves are chary of referring to the huge enterprises of this generation as needing the props of infant endeavor. Fifty or a hundred years ago the case was different. The established organization of business in other countries, and especially in England, their possession of unfamiliar machinery and processes, the acquired skill of the laborers, made it at least plausible to argue that here were formidable obstacles for new competitors; and yet obstacles which given time and some temporary aid were not insurmountable. Simple and familiar generalities have been set forth once more, because they bear on the extraordinary development of the iron industry in the United States during the last thirty years. State prices not only in the United States, but in Great Britain as well, and show that the prices of many forms of iron and steel have not only fallen in this country, but have fallen to the foreign level, sometimes even below the foreign level.

Presents various news items related to the economic conditions in Great Britain and the U.S. as of May 1903. Laws related to education in the British universities; Suggestion for a theory of industrial depressions; Plans of the United States Steel Corp. to issue bonds.

This article presents information on the English Railway and Canal Commission Act passed in Great Britain in 1888. So far as the form of the Commission is concerned, the most important changes introduced by the legislation of 1888 were the court organization of the Commission and the limitation of the right of appeal. Under the old organization the Commission was considered to be in the same position as any inferior court, and might be prohibited from proceeding in matters over which it had no jurisdiction, Now, by giving the Commission a definite court organization and by making its decisions final on questions of fact, much strength was added. The new legislation provided for a Commission of five members, composed of two lay and three Uno members. The exrofficio members are superior court judges, one for England, one for Scotland, one for Ireland. While the jurisdiction given by the Act of 1888 embraces a variety of functions, the most important of which are undue preference, facilities for traffic, traffic on steamboats, through rates, rate-books, terminals, legality of rates, provisions relating to private branch sidings, and references under the Board of Trade Arbitrations Act, 1874.

Focuses on agricultural developments in the West during the civil war in 1860s. Grain crops produced in the U.S. from 1838 to 1865; Average yearly production of grain crops in Great Britain; Increase in population of agricultural states in the U.S.

Focuses on the development of telephone industry in Great Britain. Development of first crude telephone in the country; Restriction for private enterprises related to introduction of telephone in the country; Policies related to establishing public call stations in London, England; Issues related to the conduct of National Telephone Company; Competition in the telephone industry of the country.

Discusses salient features of financial administration under the Long Parliament in Great Britain. Tax assessment plans of Committee for the Advance Money constituted by a parliamentary order; Functions of Army Committee and Goldsmith's Hall Committee; Important fiscal measures introduced in 17th century by the parliament; Dispute triggered due to an introduction of writs for ship money by Charles I.

The article focuses on geometry as a subject in elementary schools in Great Britain. Even though teaching and learning geometry is an easy job, it is not taught in elementary classes. Of all the branches studied in schools, geometry is the one to which the inductive or experimental method is the most easily applicable. The teaching aids used for geometry are simple and inexpensive. A ruler, a pair of compasses, a pair of scissors and a supply of unruled paper are all a pupil need to learn geometry. Despite all, geometry is not taught in grammar schools. It has not been made a common branch like arithmetic or geography. In a school edition of the book "Euclid," which is largely in use in many parts of Great Britain, a recommendation was made that the pupils should verify all the propositions with ruler and compasses. By illustrating a Chinese way of teaching geometry, the author argues that geometry should be made a regular part of the elementary school syllabi.

Considers various methods to measure the variability in the distribution of wealth and to apply those methods to available statistics as of May 1909. Description of graphical methods and Pareto law for the distribution of income; Use of coefficient of variability by economists to determine variations in income; Application of the measure to income and wealth statistics of Massachusetts, France and Great Britain.

Focuses on the British Trade Boards Act of 1909. Complex social problem; Laws on minimum wage; Application of factory acts to the sweated industries.

The arrangement of sections of the British Minimum Wages Act of 1909 is presented.

Discusses the distribution of income in Great Britain. Average number of incomes per unit of the range of incomes; Value of the mean income; Details of the income tax statistics.

The Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor is devoted to the subject of Workmen's Insurance and Compensation Systems in Europe. It presents a study of various systems, including insurance against accident, sickness, old age, invalidity and unemployment, as developed in eleven European countries. The first volume which will soon be ready for distribution contains chapters on Austria and Germany by Henry J. Harris, on Belgium by E.H. Lewinski-Corwin, and on Denmark by J.E. Pope. The second volume which is soon to follow will contain chapters on Great Britain by L.D. Clark; Italy, Russia, and Spain by I.M. Rubinow; Norway by J.K. Pope; and Sweden by H.O. Hanson. It will also contain original texts or translations of accident compensation laws which have been adopted up to the present time in all foreign countries. A comprehensive account of the condition of women and child workers engaged in the cotton textile industry is given in the recently issued report of Commissioner Charles P. Neil. The report which comprises over 1000 pages, was prepared under the direction of Special Agent Walter B. Palmer and Chief Editor Charles H. Verrill.

The article discusses documents and reports on insurance in the U.S. and Great Britain. The U.S. Bureau of Labor will in the near future publish a translation of the text of the new workmen's insurance code of Germany. The Annual Report of the Bank Commissioner of Massachusetts, for 1910, Part I affords data in regard to the growth of savings-bank life insurance. Many British documents relating to national insurance have recently been published. Among them are to be noted a Memorandum Explanatory of the Bill; Part II, Unemployment. Board of Trade; Memorandum on Sickness and Invalidity Insurance in Germany; Insurance Legislation in Germany; Opinions of Various Authorities; Report of the Actuaries; Part I. Replies to Letters Addressed to Chancellor of Ex-chequer. The Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1901-1911, edited by G. H. Knibbs , presents in convenient form statistics of the several states, for a great variety of governmental and private activities. This is the fourth year-book issued since the organization of the federal government. The new insurance law of Belgium of June 5, 1911, affecting miners, is given in the Revue du Travail for June 15, 1911.

Examines the provisions of the British National Insurance Act. Sickness and disablement insurance; Number and kind of persons insured; Character of workmen's contribution; Effects of the minimum wage principle; Moral potency of risk and insurance.

Sweating is not peculiar to one country nor, indeed, to one continent. In many countries, the problem has engaged the earnest attention of the government during the last few years with none of the accumulated problems of centuries of neglect, has been forced to take drastic steps to deal with the evil. It is, in fact, a product of the evolution of modern industry, and the same causes which have operated in Great Britain have given it birth or preserved its existence in other countries. Hence, though caution is always necessary in attempting to apply the experience of one country to the circumstances of another, the problem is so alike in its essentials in all parts of the world that an account of the measures taken to solve it in Great Britain may be of service elsewhere. It is typical of the change which has been effected in public knowledge that during the last half century the definition of the somewhat opprobrious term "sweating" has been widened and modified. Originally it was applied to the system of subcontracting in the clothing trade, in which undoubtedly in early days the middleman made his profit by forcing his employees to work under revolting conditions in unsanitary workshops for the lowest of wages. But later experience has shown that low wages and the other evils were not confined to the tailoring industry nor to a system of subdivided manufacture.

The article presents a summary of several studies related to ecology. These include "The shingle beach as a plant habitat," by F. W. Oliver, "The pelophilous formation of the left bank of the Severn estuary," by J. H. Priestley, "On the brown seaweeds of the salt marsh," by Sarah M. Baker, and "Ecological terminology as applied to marine Algae," by N. M. Johnson. A paper on the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire, England is also presented, as well as the research paper on the ecology of Calluna vulgaris.

Information about several papers discussed at the general meeting of the British Ecological Society which was held on April 12, 1913 in the Botanical Department, University College in Great Britain is presented. Topics include the brief historical summary of the work of the British Vegetation Committee from its inception in 1904, and the resolutions of the British Ecological Society.

The article examines the method of collection and the statistics of the income tax in Great Britain. In 1906 a Committee of the House of Commons examined the method of collection and the statistics of the Income Tax with a view to the possibility of differentiation between earned and unearned income and to the yield of a super-tax on high incomes. The evidence given to the Committee proved that the statistics were inadequate for showing what was the total number of income-tax payers, what were the numbers in any grades of income and what part of income resulted from ownership, what from earnings. The reasons for the imperfection of the statistics were as follows. A very great part of the income tax is collected at the source, from interests, dividends and profits before they are distributed and in a large group of cases from salaries before they are paid. In addition to the income so dealt with, assessments are made on individuals in respect of any other income they are known to receive and returns are demanded from persons and firms for a statement of any income not already taxed that accrues to them.

The article discusses the vegetation in Great Britain. It highlights the richness of the vegetation in the country that nearly all the forest trees and shrubs of the British flora are represented, that the species of vascular plants number about 700, and that of mosses and hepatics there are about 270 species. It also says that southern portion of Herefordshire vegetation together with the adjoining part of West Gloucestershire, enjoys a mild equable climate, with no great extremes of temperature, and with a moderate rainfall averaging about 70 cm. The article noted that South Herefordshire represents an isolated area with a mean rainfall of 60-75 cm. surrounded on all sides by a rainfall of 75-90 cm.

The article discusses the vegetation and grassland's condition in Great Britain. According to the authors, the country's grassland distribution depend on various sets of conditions including the economic requirements determined by farm practice, the relation between crops and stock and prices obtainable. It says that the grassland has been allowed to take possession in areas where the original natural vegetation has been destroyed by cultivation, deforesting and other processes. Furthermore, the degree of grazing has enabled grassland to supplant the original vegetation.

The article discusses the highlights of the annual general meeting of the British Ecological Society on May 23, 1914 held in the Botanical Lecture Theatre at University College in London, England. Several officers were elected including professor F. W. Oliver, W. B. Crump and O. V. Darbishire. A general statement of the financial position of the Society up to December 31, 1913 was presented by the treasurer. Society president, A. G. Tansley, delivered an address citing the Society's achievements.

The article focuses on capital investments and trade balances status within the British colonies. The article author applies deductively to a few individual countries the generally accepted propositions relating to the connection between capital investments and foreign trade conditions. Those countries of the world which have an excess of merchandise imports over merchandise exports are the capital lending countries, whereas those whose exports exceed imports are the borrowing countries. This is so, because the lending country must secure payment, in the guise of imports, not only for its merchandise exports but also for the interest upon its capital invested abroad in earlier years. Eventually the time will arrive when the annual payments which the lending country receives as interest on its foreign investments will exceed the new and additional capital which it may lend each year. Ultimately the annual interest payments of the borrowing country on account of capital previously obtained will surpass in amount the new capital which it borrows in each year.

The article highlights the system of taxes on land values in Great Britain. There is great reason to believe that as a result of recent judicial decisions the values of nearly all agricultural properties, and of a great many others, must be calculated over again on a different basis. Judicial decisions were responsible for much of the delay in valuation in the past as well as at present. After the decision of the Valuation Appeal Court in Scotland, April 18, 1912, to the effect that assessable site value could in no case be a minus quantity, valuations were suspended in those parts of the country where few duties and heavy ground rents are common. This decision was reversed by the House of Lords on May 2, 1913. It results from the method of valuation prescribed by the Finance Act, and occurs only when the net value of a property, after deducting the burden of fixed charges, is less than the value attributable to capital expenditures on the property. It is obvious that if the value of the site increases, even if it does not become equal to or greater than the fixed charges, the owner benefits by the full amount of the increase, since his property is more valuable, while the fixed charges remain the same. Hence for the purpose of a tax on increment, minus site values are a perfectly legitimate device. For any other form of tax they are impossible.

The article presents summaries of several articles that deal with the vegetation of some areas in Great Britain. They are "Blakeney Point in 1914," by F. W. Oliver, "Hydrilla verticillata in Britain," by W. H. Pearsall, "Pilura globulifera in Glamorgan," by M. Y. Orr, "Stratiotes aloides near Criebb," by R. C. Davie and "The Ecology of Knockdow Estate, Argyllshire," by Augusta Lamont. Information on the journals wherein the articles are published is provided, as well as the number of pages of the articles.

The article presents the geological history of the Dovey Estuary and the Adjoining Flats. During the glacial period the valley and estuary were occupied by ice which came down from the Ordovician range of Cader Idris and Aran Mawddwy. It also indicates that the western boundary of the Flats is formed by a storm-beach which extends northwards from the cliffs near North for two or three miles. The article also stresses that the geological history of the estuaries on the west coast of Great Britain is imperfectly known.

The article discusses the significance of the distribution of Nardus Stricta, a dominant type of grass species in the hilly parts of Northern Britain, in relation to peat, a carbonized vegetable matter saturated with water. It is stated that Nardus grassland is an important type of vegetation but being a dominant species among plant associations, Nardus is likely to have little relationship. However, the necessity for observing its relation to other types of species is of higher value in terms of its evolution and displacement by herbage. Furthermore, Nardetum occurs typically on peat which will be redistributed from the exposed surface of peat by wind, water, and biologic agents. During redistribution, Nardus form a zone marginal to the mass which will serve as its habitat.

The article discusses the need to recognize the classification of aquatic plant communities to address issues on aquatic vegetation in Great Britain. Accordingly, the three major methods of classifying plant communities includes warming, types of British Vegetation, and accordance to the Norfolk Broads which is contributed by Miss Marietta Pallis. For warming, plant communities are being classified according to growth form. For British Vegetation, plant communities are laid on the importance of the habitat factor. Lastly for Norfolk Broads concerns primarily on how the relation between successive plant communities is described regarding aquatic and fen communities as part of one succession being applied to British vegetation.

Information about several papers discussed during the two Summer Meetings of the British Ecological Society (BES) is presented. During the first meeting which happened on June 29, 1918, the main topic discussed was on the effect of rabbits to the vegetation and formation of soil. In the second meeting, which was held on August 1-6, 1918, topics discussed was mainly focusing on the characteristic of hill and valley vegetation in the hill region of northern Great Britain.

The article presents information on a research related to debts of certain countries who involved in the World War I. The data of nine countries including Great Britain, the U.S., France and Italy were analyzed, which show that after more than four years of war, total debts of these nations aggregated 236 billion dollars as compared with the data in the beginning of the war. In the U.S., the total disbursements from March 1, 1917, to January 31, 1919 were $26,620,334,804 that include loans to foreign governments. In Great Britain, first year of the war showed a decline in the ratio of net receipts from taxation to total expenditures indicating a rise in government spending.

This article investigates the causes of the lack of natural regeneration in British oakwoods. In October 1914, various oakwoods in Cambridge, England were littered with several well-ripened fruits. However, there were changes in the number of visible acorns during the next few weeks which can be attributed to the removal or concealment of acorns. According to foresters, rabbits eat large quantities of acorns so plots were established to temporarily protected against them. Some experiments were also conducted which showed the value protection against the attacks of animals. It also found that mice are a powerful factor militating against successful regeneration by their consumption of large quantities of the seed. Other animals known to eat acorns are cattle, wild pigs, and squirrels.

Compares the debts, revenues and note circulation of belligerent countries after World War I. Increase in per capita debt of U.S., Germany, Great Britain and Russia; Significance of the relation of receipts from taxation to expenditures; Total note circulation of thirteen belligerent powers.

Focuses on profit-sharing in Great Britain. Ministry of Labour's definition of the term; Amount of profits distributed; Decline in cooperative societies' profit-sharing; Effect of the war on the profit-sharing movement.

The great productivity of the excess profits duty has been its most remarkable feature. As is shown in the table in the article which follows, Great Britain has collected in five years nearly one billion pounds from this source approximately one fourth of her total receipts from both tax and non tax revenue. During the war outright evasion was almost unknown but since the armistice many taxpayers have resorted to various methods of avoidance and evasion. The collection of the duty has caused no business failures and has apparently not seriously undermined the stability of the business structure generally. There is no doubt, however, but that its general effect upon business has been restrictive and repressing. Whether its effect has been more unfavorable than effects of some alternative tax is doubtful. Even with a more elastic statute and more efficient administration, it has proven impossible to avoid entirely the criticism that the duty operates in certain cases in a capricious and discriminating fashion. It is freely asserted that the duty has been an important influence making for high prices but the best informed opinion appears to hold that the tax has been in most cases the excuse for and not the true cause of increases in prices.

After the report had gone to press the writer received from the British Board of Inland Revenue documents containing the most recent interpretations of the Excess Profits Duty. At the same time he received from a representative of the British Treasury a number of corrections and suggestions based on a reading of the proof sheets of the report. The material was of such great importance as to make advisable the insertion of the following notes which have been arranged to correspond with pages and captions of the report proper. The following paragraph has been included on the page 5, it should be clearly understood that the "control" devices other than the Munitions Levy, were put into operation after the imposition of the Excess Profits Duty and the Excess Mineral Rights Duty. The following paragraph has been added to the page 10, the statement is made that the British statute specifically excepts "husbandry." it is pointed out elsewhere that the exception is restricted to husbandry in Great Britain.