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This paper presents an innovative approach to detect solar panel defects early, leveraging distinct datasets comprising aerial and electroluminescence (EL) images. The decision to employ separate datasets with different models signifies a strategic choice to harness the unique strengths of each imaging modality. Aerial images provide comprehensive surface-level insights, while electroluminescence images offer valuable information on internal defects. By using these datasets with specialized models, the study aims to improve defect detection accuracy and reliability. The research explores the effectiveness of modified deep learning models, including DenseNet121 and MobileNetV3, for analyzing aerial images, and introduces a customized architecture and EfficientNetV2B2 models for electroluminescence image analysis. Results indicate promising accuracies for DenseNet121 (93.75%), MobileNetV3 (93.26%), ELFaultNet (customized architecture) (91.62%), and EfficientNetV2B2 (81.36%). This study's significance lies in its potential to transform solar panel maintenance practices, enabling early defect identification and subsequent optimization of energy production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates hall sensor signal unbalancing faults in sensored Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motor drives and presents a fault effect minimization scheme for implementation in motor controller without any modification in system architecture, or core commutation method. In the proposed scheme detection, classification, and estimation of fault extent are carried out separately at the start of controller itself for subsequent corrections without involving issue of repetitive error estimation and finding valid reference signal separately for correcting inverter switching mistiming, as required in classical methods. The categorization part of scheme maps the faults with corresponding hall sensors. The proposed scheme is validated in MATLAB/Simulink model. It is tested on experimental test bench of controller and 1 kW BLDC motor of an electric rickshaw, along with another technique based on least square method (LSM) for performance comparison. Results show reduction of peak-to-peak value by 30% and ripple content by 50% in phase currents, and peak-to-peak reduction of 47% with 29% lesser ripple content in DC link current by using the presented scheme. The observed increment in efficiency is 0.8% and 2% in nominal torque/ampere at 30% load. At 100% load, increase of 2.2% efficiency and 9% nominal torque/ampere are observed. The increased memory loading of controller is estimated to be 1.25 times as compared to normal run without any correction scheme. Approximately 24% of this additional loading is utilized for repetitive calculations as compared to 63% in the other LSM based scheme, resulting in lesser run time loading of controller. The transient response with sudden load change shows better response with implementation of the proposed scheme in controller. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of global efforts to combat the rise in global climate change and carbon dioxide emissions, there has been a substantial increase in renewable energy investment for both residential and utility power generation. Solar power facilities are estimated to be among the major contributors to global decarbonization in terms of capacity by 2050. Consequently, the majority of economically significant countries are progressively implementing utility-scale photovoltaic (U-PV) systems. Nevertheless, a major obstacle to the expansion of U-PV generation is the identification and assessment of direct current (DC) faults in the extensive array of PV panels. In order to address this obstacle, it is imperative to provide an evaluation method that can accurately and cost-effectively identify and locate potential DC faults in PV arrays. Therefore, many studies attempted to utilize thermal cameras, voltage and current sensors, power databases, and other detecting elements; however, some of these technologies provide extra hurdles in terms of the quantity and expense of the utilized hardware equipment. This work presents a sophisticated system that aims to diagnose and locate various types of PV faults, such as line-to-ground, line-to-line, inter-string, open-circuit, and partial shading events, within a PV array strings down to a module level. This study primarily depends on three crucial indicators: precise calculation of the PV array output power and current, optimal placement of a limited number of voltage sensors, and execution of specifically specified tests. The estimation of PV array power, along with selectively placed voltage sensors, minimizes the time and equipment required for fault detection and diagnosis. The feasibility of the proposed method is investigated with real field data and the PSCAD simulation platform during all possible weather conditions and array faults. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach can accurately diagnose and localize faults with only NS/2 voltage sensors, where NS is the number of PV array parallel strings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Node faults are often influenced by factors such as physical component failure, communication module errors, battery exhaustion, and environmental factors. Various researchers have contributed to addressing the problem of detecting, diagnosing, and classifying faults in sensor networks. However, computational complexity and fault occurrence probability increase with the size of the network. In this context, an enhanced optimized layered diagnosis framework (OLDF) is proposed for detecting, diagnosing, and classifying sensor node faults. OLDF utilizes a deep belief network (DBN) with chaos quantum‐behaved particle swarm optimization (CQ‐PSO) for efficient diagnosis and classification of various sensor faults in the network. The proposed OLDF consists of two layers. In the first layer, optimized DBN with CQ‐PSO algorithm is employed to determine the fault type of the sensor nodes. Then, the fault type of sensor nodes that are classified in the first layer is given as input into the second layer of the OLDF algorithm to determine the fault severity in the network. Experimentation has been carried out by using the NS3 simulator for the OLDF framework with performance metrics such as classification accuracy, diagnosis accuracy, false positives, fault alarm rate, and average energy consumption. The validity of the proposed framework has been verified through comparisons with existing works such as MFD, INSA, FDRFC, and HFD. From the comparative analysis carried out, it is apparent that the proposed framework achieves a high classification accuracy of 89.94% and diagnosis accuracy of 93.21%, with less false positive rate, and utilizes minimum energy when compared with its counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a sophisticated approach for identifying and categorizing broken rotor bars in direct torque-controlled (DTC) induction motors. DTC is implemented in industrial drive systems as a suitable control method to preserve torque control performance, which sometimes shows its impact on fault-representing frequencies. This is because of the DTC's closed-loop control nature, whichtriesto reduce speed and torque ripples by changing the voltage profile. The proposed model utilizes the modified Shapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) technique in combination with gradient-boosting decision trees (GBDT) to detect and classify the abnormalities in BRBs at diverse (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) loading conditions. To prevent overfitting of the proposed model, we used the adaptive fold cross-validation (AF-CV) technique, which can dynamically adjust the number of folds during the optimization process. By employing extensive feature engineering in the original dataset and then applying Shapely Additive exPlanations(SHAP)-based feature selection, our methodology effectively identifies informative features from signals (three-phase current, three-phase voltage, torque, and speed) and motor characteristics. The gradient-boosting decision tree (GBDT) classifier, trained using the given characteristics, extracts consistent and reliable classification performance under different loading circumstances and enables precise and accurate detection and classification of broken rotor bars. The proposed approach (SHAP-Fusion GBDT with AF-CV) is a major advancement in the field of machine learning in detecting motor anomalies at varying loading conditions and proved to be an effective mechanism for preventative maintenance and preventing faults in DTC-controlled induction motors byattaining an accuracy rate of 99% for all loading conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Przegląd Elektrotechniczny is the property of Przeglad Elektrotechniczny and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of FME Transactions is the property of University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Overheating of power transformers, low-voltage panels, and medium-voltage components in Electric Transformer Rooms (ETRs) can result from various factors, such as contact issues, irregular loads, and other similar problems. Thermal imaging shows significant potential for detecting faults in power equipment. However, its effectiveness is hindered by the complex thermal patterns of faults and variability in equipment and environmental conditions, making accurate fault detection challenging. This paper aims to study the effectiveness of transfer learning architectures for automating equipment classification in ETRs. This work applies four transfer learning architectures: AlexNet, SqueezeNet, VGG19, and GoogLeNet. The findings of the testing phase demonstrated that the use of transfer learning by fine-tuning pre-trained convolutional neural networks was highly effective in the classification of thermal images captured from ETRs, with the models achieving accuracy rates between 86.98% and 100%, and F1-Scores between 86.79% and 100%.

One important characteristic of modern fault classification systems is the ability to flag the system when faced with previously unseen fault types. This work considers the unknown fault detection capabilities of deep neural network-based fault classifiers. Specifically, we propose a methodology on how, when available, labels regarding the fault taxonomy can be used to increase unknown fault detection performance without sacrificing model performance. To achieve this, we propose to utilize soft label techniques to improve the state-of-the-art deep novel fault detection techniques during the training process and novel hierarchically consistent detection statistics for online novel fault detection. Finally, we demonstrated increased detection performance on novel fault detection in inspection images from the hot steel rolling process, with results well replicated across multiple scenarios and baseline detection methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional signal processing methods based on acceleration signals can determine whether a fault has occurred in a planetary gearbox. However, acceleration signals are severely affected by interference, causing difficulties in fault identification. This study proposes a gear fault classification method based on root strain and pseudo images. Firstly, fiber optic sensors are employed to directly acquire strain data from the ring gear root. Next, the strain signals are preprocessed using resampling and a time-domain synchronous averaging algorithm. The processed signals are encoded into two-dimensional images using Gramian Angular Fields (GAF). Then, CN-EfficientNet with contrast learning is proposed to analyze and extract deeper fault features from the image texture features. In the classification experiments for different types of faults, the accuracy reached 96.84%. The results indicate that the method can effectively accomplish the task of fault classification in planetary gearboxes. Comparative experiments with other common classification models further indicate the superior performance of the proposed learning model. Visualization based on Grad-CAM provides interpretability for the fault recognition network's results and reveals the underlying mechanism for its excellent classification performance. • A framework for planetary gearbox fault classification is proposed. • A method for measuring the root strain of ring gear tooth is designed. • A pseudo image-based gear strain signal processing algorithm is designed. • CN-EfficientNet network was built to classify pseudo images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power system interruptions, though brief, carry significant costs and adverse consequences. Ensuring a reliable power supply necessitates accurate fault detection and swift resolution through fault classification and localization. The existing individual and joint approaches for fault classification and localization involve comprehensive expert-guided feature engineering and pre-processing algorithms depending on the selected classifier. This research proposes a fully automated, integrated multi-task deep learning-based framework called the Fault-MTL (multi-task learning) model for performing fault classification and localization at the same time. The multi-task feature interdependency accelerates the conduction of tasks with better performance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first-of-its-kind study where the multi-task learning (MTL)-based deep model is developed for power system studies. To evaluate the model, we tested it on three state-of-the-art transmission line topologies, each with various initial conditions and simulated fault data variations in terms of fault type, distance, inception angle, and resistance. The tenfold cross-validation is used to measure the performance. The simulation experiments exhibit an exemplary performance by attaining the perfect validation in fault classification and the minimal mean average error of 1.59% in fault localization, across all three adapted topologies. For investigating the feasibility of the model, the ablation studies including the effect of noise, comparison with the existing state-of-the-art methods and the performance comparison of the work with the studies from the literature are performed in individual and combined simulation experiments of fault classification and fault localization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fault detection in analog circuits is of great importance to predict the correct operation of the circuit. For this purpose, soft computing techniques such as those based on the application of fuzzy inference systems stand out. However, given the large variability that can exist in analog circuits due to component tolerance, the initial fuzzy inference system (FIS) may not be able to accurately diagnose the different hard faults. This study presents a methodology to diagnose and detect the faults that can occur in analog circuits, which is based on the development of a FIS, starting from a specific fault situation in the analog circuit, and subsequently on the optimization of the membership functions using an evolutionary algorithm so that the adjusted FIS can classify and predict different failure situations. To this end, the application of optimization techniques based on particle swarm optimization (PSO) will be analyzed to develop a FIS capable of predicting different faults. In addition, pattern search algorithm will also be analyzed. A Sallen-Key band-pass filter and a single stage of a small-signal amplifier are used as test circuits. The proposed methodology shows that it is possible to accurately predict the faults that could arise in the circuits under study.

A Microgrid Protection Scheme proposed in this paper is based on the Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) and a Machine Learning model. The obtained phasor current signals at first, along with its fundamental components undergo empirical mode decomposition. Decomposing signals into mono components using the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) technique are IMF stands for intrinsic mode function. To derive various practical insights from the chosen IMF, the Hilbert Transform is employed. An approach to machine learning utilization for training the protective system should successfully function and prove best for the protection of the Microgrid System. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Air Conditioners (AC)s are devices that balance the air exchange and humidity rate as well as provide heating/cooling functions in order to keep the temperature of the environment within the desired conditions and needs. In this study, a new fault detection and classification method for AC is proposed. The method is based on the fact that power consumptions of appliances imply significant information about the appliances' health. Hence, according to the proposed method, power profiles of considered AC are created during its operations. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) configuration of AC is specifically designed and trained by created power profiles. Trained ANN is used to detect and classify faults in the present power profile before major malfunctions occur. Taking action against detected faults helps prevent increased power consumption and serious security issues. Performance and efficiency of the Method designed for classification and detection of errors is between 95.1% - 97.01%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research paper presents a proposed system for fault identification, classification and location in transmission lines using a Support Vector Machine (SVM)-based technique in conjunction with a Positive Sequence Analyzer. The objective is to develop an accurate and reliable method for identifying, classifying and locating different fault types in transmission lines. The proposed system leverages the capabilities of SVMs in handling high-dimensional feature spaces and the fault signature extraction capabilities of the Positive Sequence Analyzer. Experimental evaluations are conducted to assess the performance and effectiveness of the proposed system, comparing it with existing fault identification and classification methods. The results demonstrate the superior performance and robustness of the SVM-based technique utilizing the Positive Sequence Analyzer, providing a valuable contribution to fault management and system reliability in transmission line networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predictive maintenance (PdM) is implemented to efficiently manage maintenance schedules of machinery and equipment in manufacturing by predicting potential faults with advanced technologies such as sensors, data analysis, and machine learning algorithms. This paper introduces a study of different methodologies for automatically classifying the failures in PdM data. We first present the performance evaluation of fault classification performed by shallow machine learning (SML) methods such as Decision Trees, Support Vector Machines, k-Nearest Neighbors, and one-dimensional deep learning (DL) techniques like 1D-LeNet, 1D-AlexNet, and 1D-VGG16. Then, we apply normalization, which is a scaling technique in which features are shifted and rescaled in the dataset. We reapply classification algorithms to the normalized dataset and present the performance tables in comparison with the first results we obtained. Moreover, in contrast to existing studies in the literature, we generate balanced dataset groups by randomly selecting normal data and all faulty data for all fault types from the original dataset. The dataset groups are generated with 100 different repetitions, recording performance scores for each one and presenting the maximum scores. All methods utilized in the study are similarly employed on these groups. From these scores, the use of 1D-LeNet deep learning classifiers and feature normalization resulted in achieving the highest overall accuracy and F1-score performance of 98.50% and 98.32%, respectively. As a result, the goal of this study was to develop an efficient approach for automatic fault classification, leveraging data balance, and additionally, to provide an analysis of one-dimensional deep learning and shallow machine learning-based classification methods. In light of the experimentation and comparative analysis, this study successfully achieves its stated goal by demonstrating that one-dimensional deep learning and data balance collectively emerge as the optimal approach, offering good prediction accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A concrete production system (CPS) fault in dam engineering is one of the important factors influencing dam construction quality, which may directly affect the concrete-pouring construction progress and construction efficiency of the dam, and can even cause construction quality defects in the dam body. Reasonable classification and identification are of great significance to ensure the construction progress and quality of concrete dams. In this study, based on the concrete production logs of multiple concrete dams and literature reviews, a fault classification system for a CPS is proposed by comprehensively considering its mechanical structure characteristics and operating characteristics. The faults of the CPS are divided into 4 large categories and 22 subcategories. Additionally, the causes of CPS faults are summarized as human factors, environmental factors, mechanical component service life factors, and other factors. Based on the grey correlation analysis (GCA) method, a fault identification model of the CPS is established. With the actual production system fault statistical data of Shatuo hydropower station, the correlation coefficients for the four types of faults and the four influencing factors are calculated to determine the key faults of the CPS. The research results of the case study show that the service life factors of mechanical components have the greatest impact on batching metering system faults and mixer faults, with high grey correlation degrees of 84.66% and 76.85%, respectively. Environmental factors have the greatest impact on material delivery system faults and pneumatic system faults, with high grey correlation degrees of 90.81% and 94.9%, respectively. This paper provides theoretical support for the realization of fault pattern recognition of CPSs and provides a guiding reference for targeted fault handling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Automotive Digest is the property of Automotive Digest Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Fault detection in analog circuits is of great importance to predict the correct operation of the circuit. For this purpose, soft computing techniques such as those based on the application of fuzzy inference systems stand out. However, given the large variability that can exist in analog circuits due to component tolerance, the initial fuzzy inference system (FIS) may not be able to accurately diagnose the different hard faults. This study presents a methodology to diagnose and detect the faults that can occur in analog circuits, which is based on the development of a FIS, starting from a specific fault situation in the analog circuit, and subsequently on the optimization of the membership functions using an evolutionary algorithm so that the adjusted FIS can classify and predict different failure situations. To this end, the application of optimization techniques based on particle swarm optimization (PSO) will be analyzed to develop a FIS capable of predicting different faults. In addition, pattern search algorithm will also be analyzed. A Sallen-Key band-pass filter and a single stage of a small-signal amplifier are used as test circuits. The proposed methodology shows that it is possible to accurately predict the faults that could arise in the circuits under study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces a novel approach for fault classification in bearing components utilizing raw accelerometer data. By employing various neural network models, including deep learning architectures, we bypass the traditional preprocessing and feature-extraction stages, streamlining the classification process. Utilizing the Case Western Reserve University (CWRU) bearing dataset, our methodology demonstrates remarkable accuracy, particularly in deep learning networks such as the three variant convolutional neural networks (CNNs), achieving above 98% accuracy across various loading levels, establishing a new benchmark in fault-detection efficiency. Notably, data exploration through principal component analysis (PCA) and t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) provided valuable insights into feature relationships and patterns, aiding in effective fault detection. This research not only proves the efficacy of neural network classifiers in handling raw data but also opens avenues for more straightforward yet effective diagnostic methods in machinery health monitoring. These findings suggest significant potential for real-world applications, offering a faster yet reliable alternative to conventional fault-classification techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distribution system voltage profile management at each bus and fault detection and classification are often challenged by complex and changing network configurations. The distribution system voltage profile improvement issue is addressed by placing distributed generation (DG) units at different locations in the network. By placing the DG units at appropriate places in IEEE 33 bus radial distribution networks by a proposed reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm, the voltage profile of each node is improved and power loss in the network is minimized. There is a 69% reduction in active power losses compared to losses without DG. Furthermore, an innovative method for fault detection and classification is developed that uses a convolutional neural network (CNN) cascaded with a long short-term memory network (LSTM) and attention mechanisms (AMs). To extract dynamic information from the data, phasor measurement units (PMUs) placed on different buses are used as input for the CNN architecture. AM strengthens important information. A mapping weight and parameter learning approach allows AM to assign different weights to concentrate on LSTM characteristics and improve learning accuracy. Low and high impedance faults are tested as well as various non-faulty events. The scheme's performance is compared with that of other deep learning techniques through reliability analysis, and the time taken for fault detection (FD) is also determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of failures in low-voltage terminal connections within power transformers and proposes a fault classification methodology based on infrared thermography (IRT). Low-voltage terminal connections play a critical role in the reliable operation of power transformers, and their failures can lead to severe operational issues. In this study, we employ IRT as a noninvasive and efficient diagnostic tool to identify and classify various types of failures, including loose connections, overheating, and corrosion. The research involves the collection of infrared thermograms (IRT images) from the low-voltage terminals of power transformers under different operating conditions. The proposed methodology demonstrates its effectiveness in detecting and classifying low-voltage terminal connection failures, thereby enabling timely preventive maintenance and minimizing the risk of transformer malfunctions. This research contributes to enhancing the reliability and longevity of power transformers, reducing downtime, and optimizing maintenance practices in the power industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Electric Power Automation Equipment / Dianli Zidonghua Shebei is the property of Electric Power Automation Equipment Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The healthy operation of aircraft engines is crucial for flight safety, and accurate Remaining Useful Life prediction is one of the core technologies involved in aircraft engine prognosis and health management. In recent years, deep learning-based predictive methods within data-driven approaches have shown promising performance. However, for engines experiencing a single fault, such as a High-Pressure Compressor fault, existing deep learning-based predictive methods often face accuracy challenges due to the coupling relationship between different fault modes in the training dataset that includes a mixture of multiple fault modes. In this paper, we propose the FC-AMSLSTM method, a novel approach for Remaining Useful Life prediction specifically targeting High-Pressure Compressor degradation faults. The proposed method effectively addresses the limitations of previous approaches by fault classification and decoupling fault modes from multiple operating conditions using a decline index. Then, attention mechanisms and multi-scale convolutional neural networks are employed to extract spatiotemporal features. The long short-term memory network is then utilized to model RUL estimation. The experiments are conducted using the Commercial Modular Aero-Propulsion System Simulation dataset provided by NASA. The results demonstrate that compared to other prediction models, the FC-AMSLSTM method effectively reduces RUL prediction error for HPC degradation faults under multiple operating conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces an innovative approach to diagnostics, employing a unique combination of techniques including a stratified group K-fold cross-validation method and a sparse stacked autoencoder (SSAE) alongside LightGBM. By examining signatures derived from motor current, voltage, speed, and torque, the framework aims to effectively detect and classify broken rotor bars (BRBs) within inverter-fed induction machines. In this kind of cross-validation method, class labels and grouping factors are spread out across folds by distributing motor operational data attributes equally over target label stratification and extra grouping information. By integrating SSAE and LightGBM, a gradient-boosting framework, we elevate the precision and efficacy of defect diagnosis. The SSAE feature extraction algorithm proves to be particularly effective in identifying small BRB signatures within motor operational data. Our approach relies on comprehensive datasets collected from motor systems operating under diverse loading conditions, ranging from 0% to 100%. Using a sparse stacked autoencoder, the model lowers the dimensionality and noise of the motor fault data. It then sends the cleaned data to the LightGBM network for fault diagnosis. LightGBM leverages the attributes of the sparse stacked autoencoder to showcase the distinctive qualities associated with BRBs. This integration offers the potential to improve defect identification by furnishing input representations that are both more precise and more concise. The proposed model (SSAE with LightGBM) was trained using 80% of the data, while the remaining 20% was used for testing. To validate the proposed architecture, we evaluate the accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-scores of the results using motor global signals, with the help of confusion matrices with receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Following the training of a new LightGBM model with refined hyperparameters through Bayesian optimization, we proceed to conduct the final classification utilizing the optimal feature subset. Evaluation of the test dataset indicates that the BRBs diagnostic framework facilitates the detection and classification of issues with induction motor BRBs, achieving accuracy rates of up to 99% across all loading conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article proposes a fault classification algorithm for a Thyristor Controlled Series Compensated (TCSC) long transmission line. Such type of line imposes issues related to reactance modulation, voltage inversion, current inversion and TCSC control action. This scheme utilizes ½ cycle post-fault current signal, which is then processed by maximum overlap discrete wavelet packet transform (MODWPT), and energy feature is calculated. The proposed scheme has been validated on a modified Western System Coordinating Council (WSCC) 9 bus system with TCSC. Also, the scheme is certified for wind farm integration in grid connected mode. The bagged tree ensemble classifier outperformed various stable and ensemble combinations, including the decision tree, linear discriminative analysis, support vector machine, k-nearest neighbor, boosted/trees ensemble, and subspace/discriminant ensemble. The line with TCSC compensation is modeled using PSCAD/EMTDC software. The proposed scheme accurately classifies faults in all tested scenarios with 100% accuracy. The outcomes of the suggested algorithm along with a comparative study confirm the accuracy and fast protection measures for TCSC-compensated line.

PV systems are prone to external environmental conditions that affect PV system operations. Visual inspection of the impacts of faults on PV system is considered a better practice rather than onsite fault detection mechanisms. Faults such as hotspot, dark area, cracks, glass break, wavy lines, snail tracks, corrosion, discoloration, junction box failure and delamination faults have different visual symptoms. EL technology, infrared thermography, and photoluminescence approaches are used to extract and visualize the impact of faults on PV modules. DL based algorithms such as, CNN, ANN, RNN, AE, DBN, TL and hybrid algorithms have shown promising results in domain of visual PV fault detection. This article critically overviews working mechanism of DL algorithms in terms of their limitations, complexity, interpretability, training dataset requirements and capability to work with another DL algorithms. This research article also reviews, critically analyzes, and systematically presents different clustering algorithms based on their clustering mechanism, distance metrics, convergence criteria. Additionally, their performance is also evaluated in terms of DI, CHI, DBI, S-score, and homogeneity. Moreover, this research work explicitly identifies and explains the limitations and contributions of recent and older techniques employed for features extraction, data preprocessing, and decision making by performing SWOT analysis. This research work also recommends future research directions for industry and academia.

This paper proposes a fast protection scheme of a hybrid AC/DC distribution network based on features extraction of the decomposed signals. The signal decomposition is achieved using discrete wavelets transform (DWT). The proposed scheme offers three main functions, fast fault detection for both network sides, AC fault classification with the ability to identify the faulted phase/ phases, and protection coordination between AC and DC sides. In addition, the scheme is based on local measurement so no need for extra-cost for communication infrastructure. The absence of communication reduces the overall cost and, as a most important feature, it reduces the fault clearing time. The system is thoroughly analyzed under many types of faults in both AC and DC sides. Also, different disturbance conditions are considered which used in threshold determination. The simulation results show that the proposed protection scheme was not only able to protect the system but also it offers a generalized fast acting communication-less approach.

With the rapid development of the power industry and the widespread adoption of smart meters, the occurrence of smart meter failures has also become more frequent. Consequently, the classification of smart meter faults has become a crucial task to ensure quality assurance in the power industry. Accurately determining the fault types of smart meters and improving maintenance efficiency are of utmost importance to ensure their safe and stable operation. Traditional methods for classifying smart meter faults primarily rely on manual inspection and testing, which suffer from issues such as low classification efficiency, high cost, susceptibility to missed detections, and false detections. In recent years, machine learning methods have demonstrated advantages in this field. This paper proposes an ensemble learning method for the multi-classification of smart meter faults to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of fault classification. Firstly, various data preprocessing techniques are employed to clean and extract features from a real-world dataset, thereby enhancing the data quality of the smart meter fault types. Secondly, a selection process is conducted to screen classical machine learning algorithms, resulting in the choice of three algorithms: K Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Random Forest (RF), and Xtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost). These algorithms are then utilized to classify the fault types of smart meters. Finally, a multi-classification ensemble learning method is introduced to combine the results from multiple classifiers, thereby improving the accuracy and robustness of smart meter fault classification. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method exhibits high accuracy and robustness in fault classification, offering promising applications and value for widespread adoption.

The widespread integration of renewable energy sources to the main electrical grids has led to the increased adoption of AC microgrids. However, the protection of AC microgrids is a challenging task due to inverter interfaces, bidirectional power flow, multiple modes of operation and the requirement for selective phase tripping. This paper presents an innovative artificial neural network (ANN) based approach for fast and accurate identification and localization of symmetrical and asymmetrical faults occurring in the distribution networks of AC microgrids. In the proposed methodology, the three phase and the neutral currents which are sampled at either ends of the distribution lines, undergo discrete wavelet transform to extract the features exhibited during faults in the network. These features are used by two neural networks for classification and localization of the fault. To achieve high accuracy and computational efficiency, the network architectures of the ANNs are optimized, and the extracted features contain the detailed information required for ANNs to clearly distinguish different fault types and locations. A comprehensive evaluation and validation reveal that the proposed scheme accurately and efficiently classifies and localizes faults in AC microgrids. The existing research gap of fault localization in AC microgrids is also addressed through this approach.

This paper presents a supervised machine learning approach using eight popular classifiers for fault classification in power transmission lines. The classification of faults, indicated by the behavior of the electrical signals associated with them, plays a pivotal role in maintaining the reliability, stability, and security of electrical grids. However, most of the previous studies on fault analysis in power systems relied on proprietary data and lack of standardized benchmarks, hindering the comparison of algorithms and making performance more erratic. Moreover, the nonavailability of labeled data for all types of faults is the most problematic. This paper proposes to perform fault classification on a data set created from a real-time Simulink model to standardize performance and advance research in this area. A new strategy for non-intensive feature extraction is applied using relatively simpler techniques, eliminating computationally expensive techniques such as wavelets. Feature selection through dimensionality reduction techniques is used to improve model performance and more efficient use of computational resources. The performance of the learning algorithms (e.g. Decision Tree, Random Forest, etc.) has been analyzed with various preprocessing techniques (e.g. data scaling, transformation, etc.) and tuning of parameters, focusing on the accuracy and computational time ( $T_{c}$ ), for performance generalization and efficiency. Performing specific operations on data in sequence of steps provided flexibility and adaptability in processing the data, making it easy to train, evaluate, and validate the learning algorithms. The results demonstrated that the proposed scheme can be effectively used for fault classification with high accuracy and significant reductions in $T_{c}$ under various operating conditions. The study also determined the best estimator for each classifier when building and training the classifier models, offering a variety of options. Logistic Regression, Random Forest and Support Vector Machine were the outperforming classifiers and proved their potential for classifying faults in electric power transmission lines.

This research paper presents a proposed system for fault identification, classification and location in transmission lines using a Support Vector Machine (SVM)-based technique in conjunction with a Positive Sequence Analyzer. The objective is to develop an accurate and reliable method for identifying, classifying and locating different fault types in transmission lines. The proposed system leverages the capabilities of SVMs in handling high-dimensional feature spaces and the fault signature extraction capabilities of the Positive Sequence Analyzer. Experimental evaluations are conducted to assess the performance and effectiveness of the proposed system, comparing it with existing fault identification and classification methods. The results demonstrate the superior performance and robustness of the SVM-based technique utilizing the Positive Sequence Analyzer, providing a valuable contribution to fault management and system reliability in transmission line networks.

This study proposes a protection relay using a microcontroller to detect and classify faults in transmission lines based on the Wavelet transform. An experimental model was constructed from an actual 115 kV transmission system prototype. The current signal was observed based on the fault type, phase, and position. Clark’s transform and the discrete Wavelet transform (DWT) were applied to transform signals for analysis. The positive and zero sequences obtained from Clark’s transform were used for fault detection and fault classification, respectively. Moreover, the performances between the DWT and the short-time Fourier Transform (STFT) were compared in terms of accuracy and processing time. In addition, the double-detection technique was used to confirm the accuracy of fault detection. Results show that the proposed method is efficient for fault detection and classification. This finding allows the researcher to choose the appropriate analytical method. Moreover, it can also be used as the basis for overcurrent relay algorithm design in the effort to develop more advanced technologies.

The semiconductor industry, driven by technological advancements, is continuously undergoing process micronization. This micronization has led to an increased complexity in the wafer fabrication process and equipment. Inevitably, this change leads to a rise in defect rates. Furthermore, the traditional manual analysis methods for these defects possess several limitations. Notably, the defect analysis process is time-consuming and heavily relies on the expertise of the workers, making it challenging to achieve consistent analysis results. In modern semiconductor manufacturing sites, a vast amount of sensor data is being generated in real-time from various equipment. These sensor data contain information on the wafer’s condition, the progress of the process, and the operating conditions of the equipment. The purpose of this study is to examine the use of this sensor data in creating a deep learning model that leverages information generated within multi-stage manufacturing processes. The proposed method is designed to automatically classify the defect status of wafers and interpret the causes of these defects. Using the sensor data from two process equipment in semiconductor manufacturing, we achieve better classification performance than other existing methods. Through the interpretation of the classification results, we can identify the sensors and equipment that significantly impact the classification results. The proposed methodology is expected to significantly reduce the effort and reliance on engineers for defect analysis, thus greatly improving production efficiency.

AC microgrids are becoming increasingly important for providing reliable and sustainable power to communities. However, the evolution of distribution systems into microgrids has changed the way they respond to faults and hence their protection requirements. Faults in microgrids could hinder operation stability and damage the system components. The types, locations, and resistances of faults, as well as microgrid operation modes, distributed generation penetration levels, load changes, and system topologies, all affect how the microgrid responds to faults. In order to offer quick restoration and to protect the microgrid components, fault detection and classification are therefore essential for microgrids. In this direction, unconventional methods such as artificial intelligence have been increasing in popularity over the last years. Pattern recognition is a methodology that machine learning as an approach to artificial intelligence is concerned with. The combination of protection with machine learning may be motivating in order to achieve the goal of intelligent operation in the smart grid. In this paper, fault detection, classification and location methods are reviewed for microgrid application. Different methods applied for both fault location and fault classification are being classified by the implemented technique. Such methods are explained and analyzed providing the main advantages and disadvantages of each category. Additionally, the research trends in both fields are analyzed and state–of–the–art methods from each category are thoroughly compared. Finally, the research gaps and future directions are identified.

Based on the signum function (sign of magnitudes) of transient energy, this paper proposes a fault classification approach and algorithm for a monopolar HVDC system. The analytical study here shows that the signum function of variation in transient energy has a zero value individually at both ends on no-fault conditions. Moreover, the summation of the signum functions computed for internal DC faults is zero, whereas the same has a non-zero value for external AC faults. The performance of the proposed algorithm has been extensively evaluated by simulating faults on a CIGRE benchmark system for HVDC monopolar configuration using EMTDC/PSCAD software. Three locations of DC line fault, and AC fault at the two ends of the system have been considered for this evaluation. Five fault resistance values (0, 10, 100, 1000, and 2000 ohms) have been simulated for each fault location. The results conform with the theoretical analysis, and the fault classification by the algorithm is 100% accurate. The time taken to detect and classify a DC fault at the mid-point of the 800-km line is 1.5 ms, and that for line-end faults on the DC line is 3 ms for all values of fault resistance. These results show a marked improvement over those reported earlier in the literature using other techniques. A comparison table is given in the last section to corroborate it.

AbstractHigh-dimensional data streams are ubiquitous in modern manufacturing, due to their ability to provide valuable information about the industrial system’s performance on a real-time basis. If a shift occurs in a production process, fault diagnosis based on the data streams is of critical importance for identifying the root cause. Existing methods have largely focused on controlling the total missed discovery rate without distinguishing missed signals for positive versus negative components of the shift vector. In practice, however, losses incurred from the two directional shifts can differ substantially, so it is desirable to constrain the proportions of missed signals for positive and negative components at two distinctive levels. In this article, we propose a fault classification procedure that controls the two proportions separately. By formulating the problem as Lagrangian multiplier optimization, we show that the proposed procedure is optimal in the sense that it minimizes the expected number of false discoveries. We also suggest an iterative adjustment algorithm that converges to the optimal Lagrangian parameters. The asymptotic optimality for the data-driven version of our procedure is also established. Theoretical justification and numerical comparison with state-of-the-art methods show that the proposed procedure works well in applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the issue of diagnosing hard and soft faults in active power factor correction (APFC) power supply, this study analyzes failure modes resulting from aging and malfunction of various sensitive components. The power fault waveform patterns are initially analyzed based on the circuit's THD, current ripple value, and RMS value. The inductor current signals in different fault modes are then utilized to extract and construct time–frequency fusion fault features of the APFC power supply. Finally, these feature quantities are downscaled and optimized using the RF algorithm. The SOA‐KELM model of the APFC converter is proposed, and the feature vectors under different fault modes are used to classify and diagnose faults, achieving hard and soft fault detection of the converter. The experiments show that the method achieves 100% accuracy for hard fault diagnosis and 96.36% accuracy for soft fault diagnosis of the converter, demonstrating high diagnostic accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fault in a power system is an anomalous state that must be recognized as soon as feasible. To minimize the repercussions of the fault, such as damages occurred to the device, loss of tangible assets and loss of human resources, it is critical to notice the problem promptly. In a power distribution system, there are several approaches for detecting different types of faults. In this paper, a neoteric approach using Bayesian optimized Convolutional Neural Network is used to detect and classify different symmetrical as well as unsymmetrical faults in power distribution systems. The effectiveness of the proposed CNN model is validated for an IEEE 13 bus radial distribution system grid modeled (and simulated) in PSCAD. Time series of the measured 3-phase fault currents (for eleven different categories of faults) are used to create training & testing data. This data has been imported in MATLAB software to develop a CNN classifier (whose hyper-parameters are optimized by using a Bayesian optimizer) for faults in power distribution system, under distinct fault situations by varying fault resistance, faulty node and fault inception angles. Findings of simulation clearly indicate that proposed model has very high categorizing accuracy and is superior and competitive to other techniques available in literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PV(photovoltaic) systems have been deployed more in the recent years to support green energy generation. In the recent era, grid tied PV has been sparked by the emergence of the electricity market and offers an alternative solution to traditional fossil fuel-based electricity generation. A few of the potential impacts of solar PV on grid are false tripping of feeders, unwanted tripping, unnecessary islanding, and blind protection. In this research paper, different artificial intelligence techniques are tested in order to overcome the protection challenges. The PSCAD/EMTDC software package is used to analyze a section of the power system, and an algorithm has been constructed using Python v3.8 and MATLAB 2018. On an IEEE-9 BUS power system connected to a PV source, the Artificial Neural Network, Naive Bayes, Support Vector Machine, Random Forest, and Convolution Neural Network (CNN) algorithms are implemented to classify the faults. The suggested methods are proven effective for both in-zone and out-of-zone problems on power lines interconnected with solar park. The proposed techniques have been validated using total 16,320 internal and external fault cases with a wide range of system parameters alteration. In the proposed system, the effectiveness of several machine learning and deep learning techniques is compared. The obtained results demonstrate that CNN provides greater accuracy in the presence of a PV source, but at the same time, it is appropriate for a large number of data sets. The fault classification accuracy acquired is adequate and demonstrates the adaptability of the proposed approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a fast protection scheme of a hybrid AC/DC distribution network based on features extraction of the decomposed signals. The signal decomposition is achieved using discrete wavelets transform (DWT). The proposed scheme offers three main functions, fast fault detection for both network sides, AC fault classification with the ability to identify the faulted phase/ phases, and protection coordination between AC and DC sides. In addition, the scheme is based on local measurement so no need for extra-cost for communication infrastructure. The absence of communication reduces the overall cost and, as a most important feature, it reduces the fault clearing time. The system is thoroughly analyzed under many types of faults in both AC and DC sides. Also, different disturbance conditions are considered which used in threshold determination. The simulation results show that the proposed protection scheme was not only able to protect the system but also it offers a generalized fast acting communication-less approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering global warming and environmental problems, the importance of renewable energy sources is increasing day by day. In particular, the effects of wind and solar power, which are variable renewable power sources, on the power system necessitate their evaluation in terms of the reliability of the power system. Photovoltaic panels, which enable the conversion of solar power into electrical power with semiconductors, have started to take an important place in global energy investments today. Photovoltaic power plants increase the demand for this energy source with continuous energy conversion depending on sunshine duration and radiation intensity. Among the renewable energy sources, the most easily utilized energy source, regardless of geographical conditions, is the sun. To prevent the energy production of PV power plants from being interrupted, it is necessary to address and analyze all kinds of faults that will affect power production in order to increase the reliability of the system. Academic studies in this field are generally grouped under two topics: classification of faults or modeling of electrical faults. Based on this, in this study, the problems that occur during the installation and operation of photovoltaic systems are classified, and the relevant faults are modeled and simulated in MATLAB Simulink version 23.2 (R2023b). Thus, a scientific approach to the problems of photovoltaic power plant operating conditions has been gained, which will be the basis for academic studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposes a novel unsupervised classification method to solve the problem of mechanical fault diagnosis under the condition of unknown number of fault types. The proposed method combining the three data processing stage. First, the deep encoding neural networks is used to complete the abstract signal feature representation under the unsupervised conditions. Second, the feature dimensionality reduction technique based on manifold learning is used to complete the low-dimensional mapping of the feature space. Third, the spatial clustering based on density criterion is introduced to classify the different fault samples. This paper uses two fault signals dataset to complete the performance verification experiment. The experimental results show that the DMDUC method respectively achieves the classification accuracy of 99.7 % and 100 % on the two datasets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses the critical issue of fault detection and prediction in electric motor machinery, a prevalent challenge in industrial applications. Faults in these machines, stemming from mechanical or electrical issues, often lead to performance degradation or malfunctions, manifesting as abnormal signals in vibrations or currents. Our research focuses on enhancing the accuracy of fault classification in electric motor facilities, employing innovative image transformation methods—recurrence plots (RPs), the Gramian angular summation field (GASF), and the Gramian angular difference field (GADF)—in conjunction with a multi-input convolutional neural network (CNN) model. We conducted comprehensive experiments using datasets encompassing four types of machinery components: bearings, belts, shafts, and rotors. The results reveal that our multi-input CNN model exhibits exceptional performance in fault classification across all machinery types, significantly outperforming traditional single-input models. This study not only demonstrates the efficacy of advanced image transformation techniques in fault detection but also underscores the potential of multi-input CNN models in industrial fault diagnosis, paving the way for more reliable and efficient monitoring of electric motor machinery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar photovoltaic energy generation has garnered substantial interest owing to its inherent advantages, such as zero pollution, flexibility, sustainability, and high reliability. Ensuring the efficient functioning of PV power facilities hinges on precise fault detection. This not only bolsters their reliability and safety but also optimizes profits and avoids costly maintenance. However, the detection and classification of faults on the Direct Current (DC) side of the PV system using common protection devices present significant challenges. This research delves into the exploration and analysis of complex faults within photovoltaic (PV) arrays, particularly those exhibiting similar I-V curves, a significant challenge in PV fault diagnosis not adequately addressed in previous research. This paper explores the design and implementation of Support Vector Machines (SVMs) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), focusing on their capacity to effectively discern various fault states in small PV arrays. The research broadens its focus to incorporate the use of optimization algorithms, specifically the Bees Algorithm (BA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), with the goal of improving the performance of basic SVM and XGBoost classifiers. The optimization process involves refining the hyperparameters of the Machine Learning models to achieve superior accuracy in fault classification. The findings put forth a persuasive case for the Bees Algorithm's resilience and efficiency. When employed to optimize SVM and XGBoost classifiers for the detection of complex faults in PV arrays, the Bees Algorithm showcased remarkable accuracy. In contrast, classifiers fine-tuned with the PSO algorithm exhibited comparatively lower performances. The findings underscore the Bees Algorithm's potential to enhance the accuracy of classifiers in the context of fault detection in photovoltaic systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The meticulous monitoring and diagnosis of faults in photovoltaic (PV) systems enhances their reliability and facilitates a smooth transition to sustainable energy. This paper introduces a novel application of deep learning for fault detection and diagnosis in PV systems, employing a three-step approach. Firstly, a robust PV model is developed and fine-tuned using a heuristic optimization approach. Secondly, a comprehensive database is constructed, incorporating PV model data alongside monitored module temperature and solar irradiance for both healthy and faulty operation conditions. Lastly, fault classification utilizes features extracted from a combination consisting of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Bidirectional Gated Recurrent Unit (Bi-GRU). The amalgamation of parallel and sequential processing enables the neural network to leverage the strengths of both convolutional and recurrent layers concurrently, facilitating effective fault detection and diagnosis. The results affirm the proposed technique's efficacy in detecting and classifying various PV fault types, such as open circuits, short circuits, and partial shading. Furthermore, this work underscores the significance of dividing fault detection and diagnosis into two distinct steps rather than employing deep learning neural networks to determine fault types directly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theme of the paper is to emphasize the detection and classification of faults and their site location in the transmission line using machine learning techniques which help to indemnify the foul-up of the humans in identifying the site and type of occurrence of fault. Moreover, the transient stability is a supreme one in power systems and so the disturbances like faults are required to be separated to preserve the transient stability. In general, the protection of the transmission line includes the installation of relays at both ends of the line that constantly monitor voltages and currents and operate unless a fault occurs on a line. Therefore, this paper intends to introduce a novel transmission line protection model by exploiting the hybrid optimization concept to train the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). Here, the fault detection, classification and site location are diagnosed by using CNN which is trained and tested by making use of diverse synthetic field data derived from the simulation models of distinct types of transmission lines. Hence, the location and the type of faults will be predicted by the CNN depending on the fault signal characteristics which are optimally trained by a new hybrid algorithm named Chicken Swarm Insisted Spotted Hyena (CSI-SH) Algorithm that hybrids both the concept of Spotted Hyena Optimization (SHO) and Chicken Swarm Optimization (CSO). Finally, the proposed method based on CNN for fault classification and site location of transmission lines is implemented in MATLAB/Simulink and the performances are compared with various measures like classification accuracy, fault detection rate and so on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]