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Aims Systemic inflammation occurs commonly during many human disease settings and increases vascular permeability, leading to organ failure, and lethal outcomes. Lipocalin 10 (Lcn10), a poorly characterized member of the lipocalin family, is remarkably altered in the cardiovascular system of human patients with inflammatory conditions. Nonetheless, whether Lcn10 regulates inflammation-induced endothelial permeability remains unknown. Methods and results Systemic inflammation models were induced using mice by injection of endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) surgery. We observed that the expression of Lcn10 was dynamically altered only in endothelial cells (ECs), but not in either fibroblasts or cardiomyocytes isolated from mouse hearts following the LPS challenge or CLP surgery. Using in vitro gain- and loss-of-function approaches and an in vivo global knockout mouse model, we discovered that Lcn10 negatively regulated endothelial permeability upon inflammatory stimuli. Loss of Lcn10 augmented vascular leakage, leading to severe organ damage and higher mortality following LPS challenge, compared to wild-type controls. By contrast, overexpression of Lcn10 in ECs displayed opposite effects. A mechanistic analysis revealed that both endogenous and exogenous elevation of Lcn10 in ECs could activate slingshot homologue 1 (Ssh1)-Cofilin signalling cascade, a key axis known to control actin filament dynamics. Accordingly, a reduced formation of stress fibre and increased generation of cortical actin band were exhibited in Lcn10-ECs, when compared to controls upon endotoxin insults. Furthermore, we identified that Lcn10 interacted with LDL receptor-related protein 2 (LRP2) in ECs, which acted as an upstream factor of the Ssh1-Confilin signalling. Finally, injection of recombinant Lcn10 protein into endotoxic mice showed therapeutic effects against inflammation-induced vascular leakage. Conclusion This study identifies Lcn10 as a novel regulator of EC function and illustrates a new link in the Lcn10-LRP2-Ssh1 axis to controlling endothelial barrier integrity. Our findings may provide novel strategies for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cardiac-resident macrophages (CRMs) play important roles in homeostasis, cardiac function, and remodeling. Although CRMs play critical roles in cardiac regeneration of neonatal mice, their roles are yet to be fully elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the dynamic changes of CRMs during cardiac ontogeny and analyze the phenotypic and functional properties of CRMs in the promotion of cardiac regeneration. During mouse cardiac ontogeny, four CRM subsets exist successively: CX 3 CR1+CCR2–Ly6C–MHCII– (MP1), CX 3 CR1lowCCR2lowLy6C–MHCII– (MP2), CX 3 CR1–CCR2+Ly6C+MHCII– (MP3), and CX 3 CR1+CCR2–Ly6C–MHCII+ (MP4). MP1 cluster has different derivations (yolk sac, fetal liver, and bone marrow) and multiple functions population. Embryonic and neonatal-derived-MP1 directly promoted cardiomyocyte proliferation through Jagged-1–Notch1 axis and significantly ameliorated cardiac injury following myocardial infarction. MP2/3 subsets could survive throughout adulthood. MP4, the main population in adult mouse hearts, contributed to inflammation. During ontogeny, MP1 can convert into MP4 triggered by changes in the cellular redox state. These findings delineate the evolutionary dynamics of CRMs under physiological conditions and found direct evidence that embryonic and neonatal-derived CRMs regulate cardiomyocyte proliferation. Our findings also shed light on cardiac repair following injury. The embryonic and neonatal-derived cardiac-resident macrophages (CRMs) facilitated cardiomyocyte proliferation through Jagged-1–Notch1 axis. After birth, microenvironment changes caused switch or renewal of CRMs, which resulted in the loss of their proliferative potential. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Metabolic disorders (i.e., hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and hyperinsulinemia) cause increased secretion of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines, leading to gradual loss of cardiac resident macrophage population and increased accumulation of inflammatory monocytes/macrophages in the heart. Such self-perpetuating effect may contribute to the development of cardiomyopathy during diabetes. Recent meta-analysis data reveal that lipocalin 10 (Lcn10) is significantly downregulated in cardiac tissue of patients with heart failure but is increased in the blood of septic patients. However, the functional role of Lcn10 in cardiac inflammation triggered by metabolic disorders has never been investigated. In this study, we demonstrate that the expression of Lcn10 in macrophages was significantly decreased under multiple metabolic stress conditions. Furthermore, Lcn10-null macrophages exhibited pro-inflammatory phenotype in response to inflammation stimuli. Next, using a global Lcn10-knockout (KO) mouse model to induce type-2 diabetes (T2D), we observed that loss of Lcn10 promoted more pro-inflammatory macrophage infiltration into the heart, compared to controls, leading to aggravated insulin resistance and impaired cardiac function. Similarly, adoptive transfer of Lcn10-KO bone marrow cells into X-ray irradiated mice displayed higher ratio of pro-/anti-inflammatory macrophages in the heart and worsened cardiac function than those mice received wild-type (WT) bone marrows upon T2D conditions. Mechanistically, RNA-sequencing analysis showed that Nr4a1, a nuclear receptor known to have potent anti-inflammatory effects, is involved in Lcn10-mediated macrophage activation. Indeed, we found that nuclear translocation of Nr4a1 was disrupted in Lcn10-KO macrophages upon stimulation with LPS + IFNγ. Accordingly, treatment with Cytosporone B (CsnB), an agonist of Nr4a1, attenuated the pro-inflammatory response in Lcn10-null macrophages and partially improved cardiac function in Lcn10-KO diabetic mice. Together, these findings indicate that loss of Lcn10 skews macrophage polarization to pro-inflammatory phenotype and aggravates cardiac dysfunction during type-2 diabetes through the disruption of Nr4a1-mediated anti-inflammatory signaling pathway in macrophages. Therefore, reduction of Lcn10 expression observed in diabetic macrophages may be responsible for the pathogenesis of diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction. It suggests that Lcn10 might be a potential therapeutic factor for diabetic heart failure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Apoptosis is an early event involved in cardiomyopathy associated with diabetes mellitus. Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling triggers cell apoptosis through multiple mechanisms. Up-regulation of TLR4 expression has been shown in diabetic mice. This study aimed to delineate the role of TLR4 in myocardial apoptosis, and to block this process through gene silencing of TLR4 in the myocardia of diabetic mice. Methods Diabetes was induced in C57/BL6 mice by the injection of streptozotocin. Diabetic mice were treated with 50 μg of TLR4 siRNA or scrambled siRNA as control. Myocardial apoptosis was determined by TUNEL assay. Results After 7 days of hyperglycemia, the level of TLR4 mRNA in myocardial tissue was significantly elevated. Treatment of TLR4 siRNA knocked down gene expression as well as diminished its elevation in diabetic mice. Apoptosis was evident in cardiac tissues of diabetic mice as detected by a TUNEL assay. In contrast, treatment with TLR4 siRNA minimized apoptosis in myocardial tissues. Mechanistically, caspase-3 activation was significantly inhibited in mice that were treated with TLR4 siRNA, but not in mice treated with control siRNA. Additionally, gene silencing of TLR4 resulted in suppression of apoptotic cascades, such as Fas and caspase-3 gene expression. TLR4 deficiency resulted in inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and NADPH oxidase activity, suggesting suppression of hyperglycemia-induced apoptosis by TLR4 is associated with attenuation of oxidative stress to the cardiomyocytes. Conclusions In summary, we present novel evidence that TLR4 plays a critical role in cardiac apoptosis. This is the first demonstration of the prevention of cardiac apoptosis in diabetic mice through silencing of the TLR4 gene.

Aims Cardiac dysfunction is a prevalent comorbidity of disrupted inflammatory homeostasis observed in conditions such as sepsis (acute) or obesity (chronic). Secreted and transmembrane protein 1a (Sectm1a) has previously been implicated to regulate inflammatory responses, yet its role in inflammation-associated cardiac dysfunction is virtually unknown. Methods and results Using the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we generated a global Sectm1a-knockout (KO) mouse model and observed significantly increased mortality and cardiac injury after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection, when compared with wild-type (WT) control. Further analysis revealed significantly increased accumulation of inflammatory macrophages in hearts of LPS-treated KO mice. Accordingly, ablation of Sectm1a remarkably increased inflammatory cytokines levels both in vitro [from bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs)] and in vivo (in serum and myocardium) after LPS challenge. RNA-sequencing results and bioinformatics analyses showed that the most significantly down-regulated genes in KO-BMDMs were modulated by LXRα, a nuclear receptor with robust anti-inflammatory activity in macrophages. Indeed, we identified that the nuclear translocation of LXRα was disrupted in KO-BMDMs when treated with GW3965 (LXR agonist), resulting in higher levels of inflammatory cytokines, compared to GW3965-treated WT-cells. Furthermore, using chronic inflammation model of high-fat diet (HFD) feeding, we observed that infiltration of inflammatory monocytes/macrophages into KO-hearts were greatly increased and accordingly, worsened cardiac function, compared to WT-HFD controls. Conclusion This study defines Sectm1a as a new regulator of inflammatory-induced cardiac dysfunction through modulation of LXRα signalling in macrophages. Our data suggest that augmenting Sectm1a activity may be a potential therapeutic approach to resolve inflammation and associated cardiac dysfunction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The defective eradication of invading pathogens is a major cause of death in sepsis. As professional phagocytic cells, macrophages actively engulf/kill microorganisms and play essential roles in innate immune response against pathogens. Growth differentiation factor 3 (GDF3) was previously implicated as an important modulator of inflammatory response upon acute sterile injury. In this study, administration of recombinant GDF3 protein (rGDF3) either before or after CLP surgery remarkably improved mouse survival, along with significant reductions in bacterial load, plasma pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, and organ damage. Notably, our in vitro experiments revealed that rGDF3 treatment substantially promoted macrophage phagocytosis and intracellular killing of bacteria in a dose-dependent manner. Mechanistically, RNA-seq analysis results showed that CD5L, known to be regulated by liver X receptor α (LXRα), was the most significantly upregulated gene in rGDF3-treated macrophages. Furthermore, we observed that rGDF3 could promote LXRα nuclear translocation and thereby, augmented phagocytosis activity in macrophages, which was similar as LXRα agonist GW3965 did. By contrast, pre-treating macrophages with LXRα antagonist GSK2033 abolished beneficial effects of rGDF3 in macrophages. In addition, rGDF3 treatment failed to enhance bacteria uptake and killing in LXRα-knockout (KO) macrophages. Taken together, these results uncover that GDF3 may represent a novel mediator for controlling bacterial infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cardiovascular dysfunction is a common complication among heatstroke patients, but its underlying mechanism is unclear. This study was designed to investigate the role of calpain‐2 and its downstream signal pathway in heat stress‐induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction. In cultured primary mouse neonatal cardiomyocytes (MNCs), heat stress (43°C for 2 hr) induced a heat‐shock response, as indicated by upregulated heat‐shock protein 27 (HSP27) expression and cellular apoptosis, as indicated by increased caspase‐3 activity, DNA fragmentation and decreased cell viability. Meanwhile, heat stress decreased calpain activity, which was accompanied by downregulated calpain‐2 expression and increased phosphorylation of p38, extraceIIuIar signaI‐reguIated protein kinase (ERK1/2) and c‐Jun N‐terminaI kinase (JNK). Calpain‐2 overexpression abrogated heat stress‐induced apoptosis and phosphorylation of p38 and JNK, but not of ERK1/2. Blocking only p38 prevented heat stress‐induced apoptosis in MNCs. In cardiac‐specific calpain‐2 overexpressing transgenic mice, p38 phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte apoptosis were decreased in the heart tissue of heatstroke mice, as revealed by western blot and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling assays, respectively. M‐mode echocardiography also demonstrated that calpain‐2 overexpression significantly improved heatstroke‐induced decreases in ventricular end‐diastolic volume and cardiac output. In conclusion, our study suggests that heat stress reduces calpain‐2 expression, which then activates p38, leading to cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction. Heat stress could induce cardiomyocyte apoptosis and decrease calpain‐2 expression and total calpain activity, and increase phosphorylation of p38, extracellular signaI‐reguIated protein kinase (ERK1/2) and c‐Jun N‐terminaI kinase (JNK). Calpain‐2 overexpression could abrogate heat stress‐induced phosphorylation of p38 but not ERK1/2 and JNK, thereby decrease cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction. Targeting calpain‐2 may be a potential therapeutic strategy for heatstroke‐induced myocardial complications.. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recently reported that doxorubicin decreased the expression of calpain-1/2, while inhibition of calpain activity promoted doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury in mice. In this study, we investigated whether and how elevation of calpain-2 could affect doxorubicin-triggered cardiac injury. Transgenic mice with inducible cardiomyocyte-specific expression of calpain-2 were generated. An acute cardiotoxicity was induced in both transgenic mice and their relevant wild-type littermates by injection of a single dose of doxorubicin (20 mg/kg) and cardiac injury was analyzed 5 days after doxorubicin injection. Cardiomyocyte-specific up-regulation of calpain-2 did not induce any adverse cardiac phenotypes under physiological conditions by age 3 months, but significantly reduced myocardial injury and improved myocardial function in doxorubicin-treated mice. Cardiac protection of calpain-2 up-regulation was also observed in a mouse model of chronic doxorubicin cardiotoxicity. Up-regulation of calpain-2 increased the protein levels of mitogen activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 (MKP-1) in cultured mouse cardiomyocytes and heart tissues. Over-expression of MKP-1 prevented, whereas knockdown of MKP-1 augmented doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in cultured cardiomyocytes. Moreover, knockdown of MKP-1 offset calpain-2-elicited protective effects against doxorubicin-induced injury in cultured cardiomyocytes. Mechanistically, up-regulation of calpain-2 reduced the protein levels of phosphatase and tensin homolog and consequently promoted Akt activation, leading to increased MKP-1 protein steady-state levels by inhibiting its degradation. Collectively, this study reveals a new role of calpain-2 in promoting MKP-1 expression via phosphatase and tensin homolog/Akt signaling. This study also suggests that calpain-2/MKP-1 signaling may represent new therapeutic targets for doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: We discovered that lipopolysaccharide (LPS, an initiating factor in sepsis) and hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R, a confounding factor) reduce electrical coupling between microvascular endothelial cells from wild-type (WT) but not Cx40-/- mice. Because Cx40 knockout could result in nonspecific effects, this discovery may not establish the causal relationship between Cx40 and reduced coupling. Using the same cell culture model, we aimed to address this uncertainty by using the rescue-of-function approach. Methods/Results: Electrical coupling between endothelial cells (hindlimb muscle origin) was determined by electrophysiology. LPS, H/R and concurrent LPS + H/R reduced coupling between WT but not Cx40-/- cells. The defect in Cx40-/- cells was rescued by ectopic expression of Cx40, after infecting the cells with adenovirus encoding Cx40. Cx40-/- cells were also engineered to express mutant Cx40 that lacked the carboxyl terminal domain beginning at residue 236 (Cx40Δ237-358) or 344 (Cx40Δ345-358). No response to inflammatory stimuli was observed in cells expressing either of these 2 mutants. Conclusion: Our data establish the causal relationship between Cx40 and reduced coupling and suggest that the 345-358 amino acid motif of the Cx40 carboxyl terminal is required for reduced coupling. Cx40 may participate in compromised conducted response in the microvasculature during sepsis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: MicroRNAs (miRs) are a class of short RNA molecules, which negatively regulate gene expression. The levels of circulating miR-15 family members are elevated in septic patients and may be associated with septic death. This study investigated whether inhibition of miR-195, a member of the miR-15 family, provided beneficial effects in sepsis.Methods and Results: Sepsis was induced by injection of feces into the peritoneum in mice. miR-195 was upregulated in the lung and liver of septic mice. Silencing of miR-195 increased the protein levels of BCL-2, Sirt1, and Pim-1; prevented apoptosis; reduced liver and lung injury; and improved the survival in septic mice. Silencing of miR-195 provided similar protection in lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxemic mice. In endothelial cells, upregulation of miR-195 induced apoptosis, and inhibition of miR-195 prevented lipopolysaccharide-induced apoptosis. miR-195 repressed expression of its protein targets, BCL-2, Sirt1, and Pim-1. Furthermore, overexpression of Pim-1 prevented apoptosis induced by lipopolysaccharide and miR-195 mimic. Inhibition of Pim-1 attenuated the protective effects of miR-195 silencing in septic mice.Conclusions: Silencing of miR-195 reduced multiple-organ injury and improved the survival in sepsis, and the protective effects of miR-195 inhibition were associated with upregulation of Bcl-2, Sirt1, and Pim-1. Thus, inhibition of miR-195 may represent a new therapeutic approach for sepsis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calpain plays a critical role in cardiomyopathic changes in type 1 diabetes (T1D). This study investigated how calpain regulates mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy. T1D was induced in transgenic mice overexpressing calpastatin, in mice with cardiomyocyte-specific capn4 deletion, or in their wild-type littermates by injection of streptozotocin. Calpain-1 protein and activity in mitochondria were elevated in diabetic mouse hearts. The increased mitochondrial calpain-1 was associated with an increase in mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative damage and a reduction in ATP synthase-α (ATP5A1) protein and ATP synthase activity. Genetic inhibition of calpain or upregulation of ATP5A1 increased ATP5A1 and ATP synthase activity, prevented mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative damage, and reduced cardiomyopathic changes in diabetic mice. High glucose concentration induced ATP synthase disruption, mitochondrial superoxide generation, and cell death in cardiomyocytes, all of which were prevented by overexpression of mitochondria-targeted calpastatin or ATP5A1. Moreover, upregulation of calpain-1 specifically in mitochondria induced the cleavage of ATP5A1, superoxide generation, and apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. In summary, calpain-1 accumulation in mitochondria disrupts ATP synthase and induces ROS generation, which promotes diabetic cardiomyopathy. These findings suggest a novel mechanism for and may have significant implications in diabetic cardiac complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lipid overload contributes to cardiac complications of diabetes and obesity. However, the underlying mechanisms remain obscure. This study investigates the role of gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (ABAT), the key enzyme involved in the catabolism of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), in lipid overload-induced cardiac injury. Microarray revealed a down-regulation of ABAT mRNA expression in high fat diet (HFD)-fed mouse hearts, which correlated with a reduction in ABAT protein level and its GABA catabolic activity. Transgenic mice with cardiomyocyte-specific ABAT over-expression (Tg-ABAT/tTA) were generated to determine the role of ABAT in lipid overload-induced cardiac injury. Feeding with a HFD to control mice for 4 months reduced ATP production and the mitochondrial DNA copy number, and induced myocardial oxidative stress, hypertrophy, fibrosis and dysfunction. Such pathological effects of HFD were mitigated by ABAT over-expression in Tg-ABAT/tTA mice. In cultured cardiomyocytes, palmitate increased mitochondrial ROS production, depleted ATP production and promoted apoptosis, all of which were attenuated by ABAT over-expression. With the inhibition of ABAT's GABA catabolic activity, the protective effects of ABAT remained unchanged in palmitate-induced cardiomyocytes. Thus, ABAT protects the mitochondrial function in defending the heart against lipid overload-induced injury through mechanisms independent of its GABA catabolic activity, and may represent a new therapeutic target for lipid overload-induced cardiac injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Th17 cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of myocarditis. Interleukin (IL)-17A produced by Th17 cells is dispensable for viral myocarditis but essential for the progression to dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). This study investigated whether the adenoviral transfer of the IL-17 receptor A reduces myocardial remodeling and dysfunction in viral myocarditis leading to DCM. In a mouse model of Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-induced chronic myocarditis, the delivery of the adenovirus-containing IL-17 receptor A (Ad-IL17RA:Fc) reduced IL-17A production and decreased the number of Th17 cells in the spleen and heart, leading to the down-regulation of systemic TNF-α and IL-6 production. Cardiac function improved significantly in the Ad-IL17R:Fc- compared with the Ad-null-treated mice 3 months after the first CVB3 infection. Ad-IL17R:Fc reduced the left ventricle dilation and decreased the mortality in viral myocarditis, leading to DCM (56% in the Ad-IL17R:Fc versus 76% in the Ad-null group). The protective effects of Ad-IL17R-Fc on remodeling correlated with the attenuation of myocardial collagen deposition and the reduction of fibroblasts in CVB3-infected hearts, which was accompanied by the down-regulation of A distintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin type 1 motifs (ADAMTS-1), Matrix metalloproteinase-2(MMP-2), and collagen subtypes I and III in the heart. Moreover, in cultured cardiac fibroblasts, IL-17A induced the expression of ADAMTS-1, MMP-2, and collagen subtypes I and III and increased the proliferation of fibroblasts. We determined that the delivery of IL-17-RA:Fc reduces cardiac remodeling, improves function, and decreases mortality in viral myocarditis leading to DCM, possibly by suppressing fibrosis. Therefore, the adenoviral transfer of the IL-17 receptor A may represent an alternative therapy for chronic viral myocarditis and its progression to DCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The outer membrane protein RagB is one of the major virulence factors of the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis). In order to induce protective immune response against P. gingivalis infection, an mGITRL gene-linked ragB DNA vaccine (pIRES-ragB-mGITRL ) was constructed. Six-week-old female BALB/c mice were immunized with pIRES-ragB-mGITRL through intramuscular injection and then challenged by subcutaneous injection in the abdomen with P. gingivalis. RagB-specific antibody-forming cells were evaluated by an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot, and specific antibody was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, the frequencies of Tfh and IFN-γ+ T cells in spleen were measured using flow cytometer, and the levels of IL-21 and IFN-γ mRNA or proteins were detected by real time RT-PCR or ELISA. The data showed that the mGITRL-linked ragB DNA vaccine induced higher levels of RagB-specific IgG in serum and RagB-specific antibody-forming cells in spleen. The frequencies of Tfh and IFN-γ+ T cells were obviously expanded in mice immunized by pIRES-ragB-mGITRL compared with other groups (pIRES or pIRES-ragB ). The levels of Tfh and IFN-γ+ T cells associated cytokines were also significantly increased in pIRES-ragB-mGITRL group. Therefore, the mice immunized with ragB plus mGITRL showed the stronger resistant to P. gingivalis infection and a significant reduction of the lesion size caused by P. gingivalis infection comparing with other groups. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that intramuscular injection of DNA vaccine ragB together with mGITRL induced protective immune response dramatically by increasing Tfh and IFN-γ+ T cells and antibody production to P. gingivalis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a non-histone nuclear protein, has been implicated in cardiovascular diseases. Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), one of the leading causes of heart failure, is often caused by coxsackievirus B3-triggered myocarditis and promoted by the post-infectious autoimmune process. Th17 cells, a novel CD4+ T subset, may be important in the pathogenesis of autoimmune myocarditis. In the present study, we attempted to block HMGB1 function with a monoclonal antibody specific for HMGB1 B box and investigated the effects of the blockade on Th17 cells and experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM). After induction of EAM, HMGB1 protein levels were significantly elevated both in the heart and blood. Administration of an anti-HMGB1 B box mAb attenuated cardiac pathological changes and reduced the number of infiltrating inflammatory cells in the heart during EAM. These protective effects of HMGB1 blockade correlated with a reduced number of Th17 cells in local tissues and lower levels of IL-17 in the serum. Furthermore, in vitro, studies demonstrated that HMGB1 promoted Th17-cell expansion. Therefore, we speculate that HMGB1 blockade ameliorates cardiac pathological changes in EAM by suppressing Th17 cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]