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Endurance athletes are a population where self-control in the form of following training plans, race plans, and pacing schedules is key to performing successfully. A valid and stable measure of self-control has theoretical and applied value through the ability to identify athletes who might be susceptible to poor self-control. The present study reports the test-retest stability of the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS). 132 endurance athletes (18-65 years) completed the 13-item BSCS on two occasions, separated by two weeks. Stability was measured by calculating the test-retest differences for each questionnaire item, with a stable item showing 90% of respondents' test-retest differences within a reference value of [+ or -]1. Analyses revealed seven items to be stable with the question, Q10 = 'I am able to work effectively toward long-term goals', demonstrating greatest stability (96.4%). In contrast, six items showed relatively poor stability with test-retest difference scores ranging from 84.1-89.9%. Chi-square tests of independence revealed no associations with categorical levels of age, gender, sport, and training habits. In the context of the current findings, we argue that the six unstable items do not represent dispositional self-control behavior among endurance athletes. Future researchers are encouraged to assess the stability of individual items rather than favoring a summary statistic, particularly when developing trait measures., Working from an individual-differences perspective, self-control has been shown to predict behavioral outcomes in contexts such as health (Imhoff, Schmidt, & Gerstenberg, 2014; Schroder, Ollis, & Davies, 2013), education (Tangney, [...]

The aims of the study were to use differentiated online learning material for use with a Level 1 statistics module for undergraduate sport students and examine relationships between student performance on differentiated tests and module performance. We developed the differentiated material by writing easy and hard multiple choice tests, with the harder tests having a shorter completion time and more choices. Each multiple choice test related to information available online and immediate feedback was provided on completion of the test. Results indicated that 85% of students accessed the module online, with 26% accessing difficult tests and 22% accessing easy tests. Correlation results indicated that module performance was significantly related to performance on the easy test (r = 0.27, P less than 0.01) and also on the harder test (r = 0.26, P less than 0.01). Findings suggest that lecturers should encourage students to engage with interactive material and that future research should explore methods to enhance students' independent learning skills. (Contains 2 tables.)

The present study examined changes in primary and secondary appraisal, and coping strategies utilized in the final weeks leading to dissertation submission. Sixty volunteer Sports Studies dissertation students (male: n = 29; female: n = 31) completed an adapted Cognitive Appraisal of Health Scale (CAHS: Kessler, 1998), and Brief COPE (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) on 4 occasions over the 6 weeks before dissertation submission. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated a significant main effect for gender, with no main effect for changes over time and no significant interaction effect. Results demonstrated that males perceived the dissertation to be significantly more threatening and less challenging than females. With regard to coping, males used more active coping, positive reframing, planning, and acceptance of the stressor, with lower scores for self-blame, venting of emotions, and behavioral disengagement. The results suggest that, for this student population, the dissertation did not become increasingly stressful in the period before submission. Clear relationships were also evidenced between primary appraisal, secondary appraisal, and coping. Future research should seek to identify factors that moderate the influence of situational stressors on coping responses among undergraduate students. (Contains 1 table.)

Establishing stability, defined as observing minimal measurement error in a test-retest assessment, is vital to validating psychometric tools. Correlational methods, such as Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa are tests of association or consistency, whereas stability or reproducibility (regarded here as synonymous) assesses the agreement between test-retest scores. Indexes of reproducibility using the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ: Duda & Nicholls, 1992) were investigated using correlational (Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa) methods, repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance, and calculating the proportion of agreement within a referent value of [+ or -] 1 as suggested by Nevill, Lane, Kilgour, Bowes, and Whyte (2001). Two hundred thirteen soccer players completed the TEOSQ on two occasions, 1 week apart. Correlation analyses indicated a stronger test-retest correlation for the Ego subscale than the Task subscale. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated stability for ego items but with significant increases in four task items. The proportion of test-retest agreement scores indicated that all ego items reported relatively poor stability statistics with test-retest scores within a range of [+ or -] 1, ranging from 82.7-86. 9%. By contrast, all task items showed test-retest difference scores ranging from 92.5-99%, although further analysis indicated that four task subscale items increased significantly. Findings illustrated that correlational methods (Pearson product-moment, intraclass, and kappa) are influenced by the range in scores, and calculating the proportion of agreement of test-retest differences with a referent value of [+ or -] 1 could provide additional insight into the stability of the questionnaire. It is suggested that the item-by-item proportion of agreement method proposed by Nevill et al. (2001) should be used to supplement existing methods and could be especially helpful in identifying rogue items in the initial stages of psychometric questionnaire validation. (Contains 1 note.)

This study investigated the effectiveness of providing tutorial support for education students in core modules. An intervention designed to promote critical thinking skills was developed and delivered in week 11 of a 15 week module. Repeated measures analysis of variance indicated that the improvement in grades in Level 2 was significantly better among students in the research group (F[1,49] = 9.88, P is less than 0.05, partial [epsilon][2] = 0.17), although it is acknowledged that all students improved significantly. Focus group interviews to explore students' perceptions (n = 15) of the effectiveness of the intervention revealed that additional tutorial support provided students opportunities for meaningful engagement with the subject matter, their peers and the lecturer. Findings lend support to arguments that encourage lecturers to adapt their learning environment so that it meets the learning styles of the students.

The present study explored predictive paths between performance accomplishments, self-efficacy, and performance among Sport Studies students taking a Level 1 statistics module. Fifty-eight Level 1 Sport Studies undergraduate degree students completed a 44-item self-efficacy measure and an assessment of perceived academic success at the start of the module. Self-assessed worksheets taken in weeks 4 and 5 were used as a second performance measure. Self-efficacy was re-assessed in week 7 and students handed the assignment for the module in week 8. Path analysis results using structural equation modeling indicated that perceived academic success was associated with the first self-efficacy measure, which in turn predicted worksheet success, and the two self-efficacy measures correlated. The second self-efficacy measure predicted module performance, and importantly showed the strongest relationship of all predictor variables. We suggest that future research should investigate the effectiveness of strategies designed to enhance self-efficacy.

The present study explored the effects of unexpected loss of water supply on coping strategies used among a sample of habitual exercisers. Nine volunteer participants completed semi--structured interviews within a week of resumed water supply. Results indicated that all participants reported modifying their exercise regimen during the period of water loss. Exercise modifications, resultant consequences and coping behaviors varied across the stages of loss of water supply and appeared to be influenced by exercise beliefs. Given exercise has been found to be an effective self--regulatory strategy; there is a need for sport and exercise practitioners to consider carefully the role of exercise beliefs in managing the potential impact of unexpected stressors. Practitioners are encouraged to develop methods through which they can assist athletes' maintenance of exercise., On the 20th July 2007 severe flooding hit Gloucestershire, UK, affecting many houses and businesses, including the local water treatment works. For some individuals, the floods posed a natural disaster [...]

The present study evaluated the effectiveness of an intervention intended to improve academy players' performance under pressure. Male academy soccer players (n = 82; mean age = 14.12 years, SD = 2.28) completed a baseline pressure task producing performance scores (A) for decision making and skill execution. By completing a pressure task, players received pressure training (PT) (Wood & Wilson, 2012). Players were then randomly allocated to an intervention group (n = 41; receiving PT, three cognitive behavior workshops, and reflective diaries) or comparison group (n = 41; receiving PT only). Sixty-eight players (n = 29; intervention group; n = 39; comparison group) repeated the PT task at a six-week follow up (B), and of these, 26 (n = 15; intervention group; n = 11; PT only) also completed a re-test PT task (A) at 12-week follow up. Due to attrition at follow up, chi-square analysis was conducted across experimental groups A-B only. Analysis indicated intervention players scored significantly higher in their decision-making (p =.028) with a significant main effect of age-group on decision-making (p =.003) and skill execution (p =.005). Four players (highest scoring and lowest scoring player within intervention and comparison groups) from each academy age-group (n = 16) took part in individual interviews to explore intervention effectiveness. Thematic analysis found that some players perceived no benefits of the condition they completed, others perceived benefits to confidence, meta-cognitive skills, and challenge appraisals. Methodological implications for future pressure training interventions are presented. Lay summary: This study offers partial support in the effectiveness of contextualized pressure program to enhance elite academy players' ability to cope with performance pressure. Some players felt the intervention had no benefits, whilst others said there were benefits for confidence, ability to understand helpful emotions and thoughts when performing under pressure. A contextualized pressure intervention comprising of pressure training, cognitive behavioral workshops and reflective diaries can facilitate performance under pressure by enhancing coping skills. Organizational support and endorsements from key personnel (e.g., academy manager, coaches, and senior coaches) for all components of pressure interventions is important in supporting player engagement. To optimize pressure training, practitioners should focus on how to incorporate pertinent situational and personal incentives within pressure training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent experimental evidence suggests that the noise of a partisan home crowd may influence soccer officials to make an imbalance of decisions in favor of the home side (Nevill, Balmer, & Williams, 2002). The purpose of the present study was to test the notion that biased decisions in favor of the home team are associated with increased anxiety and arousal due to increased difficulty of making accurate decisions when refereeing in the presence of crowd noise. Using the same video footage used by Nevill et al. (2002), 26 participants recorded decisions when fouls occurred. Participants completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 immediately after performing the refereeing task. Degree of mental effort was recorded using self-report and physiological measures. Logistic regression indicated that participants were biased in favor of the home team in their evaluation of fouls carried out by one visiting and one home team. Significant relationships were found between decision bias and increases in cognitive anxiety and mental effort with crowd noise. Hierarchical regression indicated that mental effort and cognitive anxiety combined to account for 36% of the variance in decision bias. Results suggest that crowd noise is associated with increased anxiety and mental effort, and that referees attempt to cope with this increased anxiety and effort by giving a more popular decision in favor of the home team., Home advantage in team games has been defined as "the consistent finding that home teams in sports competitions win over 50% of the games played under a balanced home and [...]

The study investigated relationships between game location, performers' experience, and mood states. 31 experienced collegiate soccer players completed the Brunel Mood Scale to assess anger, calmness, confusion, depression, fatigue, happiness, tension, and vigor before eight competitive games (four home and four away). Participants were categorized into Experienced and Less Experienced groups, based on the level of performance at which they played. Repeated-measures multivariate analyses of variance compared mean mood scores across location and experience, and follow up univariate analyses suggested the increase in mood scores on Tension and decrease in scores on Calmness, Happiness, and Vigor between playing away and at home were significantly greater for Less experienced soccer players than Experienced players. Implications of these findings for the applied practitioner are discussed.

The present study examined Lane and Terry's (2000) conceptual model in the sport of wakeboarding. We hypothesized that depressed mood would be associated with high anger, confusion, and fatigue, with low vigor, and poor performance. We argued that there would be no significant difference in the number of points set as a goal. Fifty-one wakeboarders completed the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS: Terry, Lane, Lane, & Keohane, 1999) within 1 hr. of competition. Based on scores on the BRUMS depression subscale, participants were dichotomized into a no-depression group (n = 31) or a depressed mood group (n = 20). Goal difficulty was assessed by comparing the number of points that participants set as a goal for the impending competition with the previous best points score. Performance was assessed by calculating the difference in points scored in the current competition with personal best. MANOVA results indicated that the depressed mood was associated with poor performance coupled with anger, confusion, and fatigue. Findings demonstrated that there was no significant difference in the difficulty of the goal. Depressed mood moderated relationships between goal difficulty, other mood states and performance. A difficult goal was associated with vigor in the No-depression group, but was associated with low anger in the depressed mood group. Findings lend support to the notion that mood serves a signal function to the individual that indicates the perceived likelihood of success and failure. Findings show that depressed mood fosters a negative psychological state., It is commonly believed that psychological variables such as mood influence sport performance. Wakeboarding is a water skiing discipline comprising a pre-planned skill based routine lasting approximately 3 minutes. Quality [...]

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the factorial validity of the Brunel Mood Scale, which measures anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, tension, and vigor, for water-skiers. Participants were 345 water-skiers (age range 16 to 39 years, men: n = 311, women: n = 34) who completed the scale approximately 1 hour before a water-skiing competition. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated support for the validity of the 6-factor model, with a Comparative Fit Index of .90 and Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation of .07. Internal consistency coefficients were above the .70 criterion. It is suggested that the Brunel Mood Scale shows factorial validity for use with water-skiers and that researchers should continue to assess validation of the Brunel Mood Scale with other measures and with specific appropriate samples.