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The increasing production of bio-based plastics calls for thorough environmental assessments. Using life cycle assessment, this study compares European supply of fully bio-based high-density polyethylene and partially bio-based polyethylene terephthalate from Brazilian and Indian sugarcane ethanol with production of their petrochemical counterparts in Europe. Bio-based polyethylene results in greenhouse gas emissions of around −0.75 kg CO 2eq /kg polyethylene , i.e. 140% lower than petrochemical polyethylene; savings on non-renewable energy use are approximately 65%. Greenhouse gas emissions of partially bio-based polyethylene terephthalate are similar to petrochemical production (±10%) and non-renewable energy use is lower by up to 10%, partly due to the low bio-based content of the polymer. Assuming that process energy is provided by combined heat and power reduces the greenhouse gas emissions of partially bio-based polyethylene terephthalate production to a range from −4% (higher) to 15% (lower) compared to petrochemical polyethylene terephthalate depending on the methodological choices made. Production from Brazilian ethanol leads to slightly higher impacts than production from Indian ethanol due to dampening effects of allocation on Indian ethanol produced from sugarcane molasses, different sugarcane pre-harvesting practices and inter-continental transport of Brazilian ethanol to India. Internal technical improvements such as fuel switch, new plants and best available technology offer savings up to 30% in greenhouse gas emissions compared to current production of petrochemical polyethylene terephthalate. The combination of some of these measures and the use of biomass for the supply of process steam can reduce the greenhouse gas emissions even further. In human health and ecosystem quality, the impact of the bio-based polymers is up to 2 orders of magnitude higher, primarily due to pesticide use, pre-harvesting burning practices in Brazil and land occupation. When improvements are assumed across the supply chain, such as pesticide control and elimination of burning practices, the impact of the bio-based polymers can be significantly reduced. Realising such improvements will minimise the greenhouse gas and other emissions and resource use associated with bio-based polyethylene terephthalate and will allow to alleviate further pressure on fragile ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest biomass is one of the main contributors to the EU's renewable energy target of 20% gross final energy consumption in 2020 (Renewable Energy Directive). Following the RED, new sustainability principles are launched by the European energy sector, such as the Initiative Wood Pellet Buyers (IWPB or SBP). The aim of our study is the investigation of the quantitative impacts from IWPB's principles for forest biomass for energy only. We deploy a bottom up method that quantifies the supplies and the costs from log harvest until forest chip delivery at a domestic consumer. We have a reference situation with existing national (forest) legislation and voluntary certification schemes (scenario 1) and a future situation with additional criteria based on the IWPB principles (scenario 2). Two country studies were selected for our (2008) survey: one in Finland with nearly 100% certification and one in Leningrad province with a minor areal share of certification in scenario 1. The sustainable potential of forest resources for energy is about 54 Mm 3 (385 PJ) in Finland and about 13.5 Mm 3 (95 PJ) in Leningrad in scenario 1 without extra criteria. The potential volumes reduce considerably by maximum 43% respectively 39% after new criteria from the IWPB, like a minimum use of sawlogs, stumps and slash for energy, and by an increased area of protected forests (scenario 2A Maximum extra restrictions). In case sawlogs can be used, but instead ash recycling is applied after a maximum stump and slash recovery (scenario 2B Minimum extra restrictions), the potential supply is less reduced: 5% in Finland and 22% in Leningrad region. The estimated reference costs for forest chips are between €18 and €45 solid m −3 in Finland and between €7 and €33 solid m −3 in the Leningrad region. In scenario 2A, the costs will mainly increase by €7 m −3 for delimbing full trees (Finland), and maximum €0.3 m −3 for suggested improved forest management (Leningrad region). In scenario 2B, when ash recycling is applied, costs increase by about €0.3 to €1.6 m −3 , depending on the rate of soil contamination. This is an increase of 2%, on top of the costs in scenario 2A. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper determines the energy consumption ratio and overall bio-energy production costs of micro-algae cultivation, harvesting and conversion to secondary energy carriers, thus helping to clarify future perspectives of micro-algae production for energy purposes. A limitation growth model is developed, which determines the productivity of micro-algae for different climate profiles. Total direct and indirect energy consumption ratios for the production of heat, fuels and electricity derived from micro-algae are calculated. Overall direct energy consumption ratio for raceway ponds is 0.06 for the optimal case, indirect energy consumption ratio for that case is 0.74. Direct energy consumption ratio in horizontal tubular systems is 0.32 for the optimal case, indirect energy consumption ratio for that case is 117. The implementation of different improvement options could reduce the indirect energy consumption ratio by fifty percent for both raceway ponds and horizontal tubular systems in the optimistic scenario. Prominent elements of the energy consumption ratios are carbon dioxide supply for raceway ponds and circulation power consumption for horizontal tubular systems. The lower end of fuel production cost calculated for raceway ponds is 136€2010/GJ and 153€2010/GJ for horizontal tubular systems (non-renewable gasoline and diesel is about 5–20€/GJ). Considering possible improvement options overall bio-energy production costs could be reduced by one-fourth. Current results suggest that micro-algae cultivation is not suitable for dedicated bio-energy production in considered cultivation, harvesting and conversion options. Coproduction of bio-energy with high-value products are more viable, but is not considered in this research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The feasibility of deploying a socio-economic and environmental impact analysis for large-scale bioenergy production on a regional level is analyzed, based on a set of defined criteria and indicators. The analysis is done for La Pampa province in Argentina. The case study results in conclusions in how far the criteria can be verified ex ante based on available methodologies and data sources. The impacts are analyzed for two bioenergy chains (soybeans and switchgrass) for a set of defined land use scenarios. The carbon stock change for switchgrass ranges from 0.2 to 1.2tonC/ha/year and for soybean from −1.2 to 0tonC/ha/year, depending on the scenario. The GHG emission reduction ranges from 88% to 133% for the switchgrass bioenergy chain (replacing coal or natural gas) and from 16% to 94% for the soybean bioenergy chain (replacing fossil fuel) for various lifetime periods. The annual soil loss, compared to the reference land use system is 2–10ton/ha for the soybean bioenergy chain and 1–2ton/ha for the switchgrass bioenergy chain. In total, nine sustainability principles are analyzed. In the case of switchgrass, most environmental benefits can be achieved when produced on suitable land of abandoned cropland. Soybean production for bioenergy shows a good overall sustainability performance if produced on abandoned cropland. The production of switchgrass on degraded grassland shows socio-economic and environmental benefits, which is not the case for soybean production. The production of bioenergy production on non-degraded grassland is not preferred. It is concluded that the scenario approach enables understanding of the complexity of the bioenergy chain and the underlying factors influencing the sustainability principles. It is difficult to give ex ante a final conclusion whether a bioenergy chain is sustainable or not as this depends not only on the previous land use system but also on other factors as the selection of the bioenergy crop, the suitable agroecological zone and the agricultural management system applied. The results also imply that it is possible to steer for a large part the sustainability performance of a bioenergy chain during project development and implementation. Land use planning plays a key role in this process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study focuses on the economic feasibility for large-scale biomass production from soybeans or switchgrass from a region in Argentina. This is determined, firstly, by estimating whether the potential supply of biomass, when food and feed demand are met, is sufficient under different scenarios to 2030. On a national level, switchgrass has a biomass potential of 99×106 (1.9 EJ) to 243×106 tdm (4.5 EJ)/year depending on the scenario. Soybean (crude vegetable oil content) production for bioenergy has a potential of 7.1×106 (0.25 EJ) to 13.8×106 tdm (0.5 EJ)/year depending on the scenario. The most suitable region (La Pampa province) to cultivate energy crop production is selected based on a defined set of criteria (available land for biomass production, available potential for both crops, proximity of logistics and limited risk of land use competition). The available potential for bioenergy in La Pampa ranges from 1.2×105 to 1.8×105 tdm/year for soybean production (based on vegetable oil content) and from 6.3×106 to 18.2×106 tdm/year for switchgrass production, depending on the scenario. Bioenergy chains for large-scale biomass production for export or for local use are further defined to analyse the economic performance. In this study, switchgrass is converted to pellets for power generation in the Netherlands or for local heating in Argentina. Soybeans are used for biodiesel production for export or for local use. Switchgrass cultivation costs range from 33–91US$/tdm (1€=1.47 US$ based on 19 February 2008). Pellet production costs are 58–143US$/tdm for local use and 150–296US$/tdm until delivery at the harbour of Rotterdam. Total conversion costs for electricity in the Netherlands from switchgrass pellets range from 0.06–0.08US$/kWh. Heating costs in Argentina from switchgrass pellets range from 0.02–0.04US$/kWh. Soybean cultivation costs range from 182–501US$/tdm depending on the scenario. Biodiesel production costs are 0.3–1.2 US$/l for local use and 0.5–1.7 US$/l after export to the Netherlands. Key parameters for the economic performance of the bioenergy chains in La Pampa province are transport costs, cultivation costs, pre-processing and conversion costs and costs for fossil fuels and agricultural commodities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) have a substantial biomass production and export potential. The objective of this study is to assess whether the market for biofuels and trade can be profitable enough to realize a supply of biofuels from the CEEC to the European market and to estimate the cost performance of the energy carriers delivered. Five NUTS-2 (Nomenclature d''Unités Territoriales Statistiques) regions with high biomass production potentials in Poland, Romania, Hungary and the Czech Republic were analysed for biofuel export options. From these regions pellets from willow can be provided to destination areas in Western European countries (WEC) at costs of 105.2–219.8€t−1. Ethanol can be provided at 11.95–20.89€ per GJ if the biomass conversion is performed at the destination areas in the WEC or at 14.84–17.83€ GJ−1J if the biomass to ethanol conversion takes place (at small scale) at the CEEC region where the biomass is produced. Short sea shipping shows most cost advantages for longer distance international transport compared to inland waterway shipping and railway. Another reason for lower biofuel supply costs are shorter distances between the regions of biomass production and the destination areas. Therefore the Szczecin region in Poland, closely located to the Baltic Sea, shows a better economic performance for long distance trade of biomass production than the selected region in Hungary (‘land-locked’). It is concluded that in future key CEEC regions can supply (pre-treated) biomass and biofuels to the European market at cost levels, which are sound and attractive to current and expected diesel and gasoline prices. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A methodology for the assessment of biomass potentials was developed and applied to Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC). Biomass resources considered are agricultural residues, forestry residues, and wood from surplus forest and biomass from energy crops. Only land that is not needed for food and feed production is considered as available for the production of energy crops. Five scenarios were built to depict the influences of different factors on biomass potentials and costs. Scenarios, with a domination of current level of agricultural production or ecological production systems, show the smallest biomass potentials of 2–5.7EJ for all CEEC. Highest potentials can reach up to 11.7EJ (85% from energy crops, 12% from residues and 3% from surplus forest wood) when 44 million ha of agricultural land become available for energy crop production. This potential is, however, only realizable under high input production systems and most advanced production technology, best allocation of crop production over all CEEC and by choosing willow as energy crops. The production of lignocellulosic crops, and willow in particular, best combines high biomass production potentials and low biomass production costs. Production costs for willow biomass range from 1.6 to 8.0€/GJ HHV in the scenario with the highest agricultural productivity and 1.0–4.5€/GJ HHV in the scenario reflecting the current status of agricultural production. Generally the highest biomass production costs are experienced when ecological agriculture is prevailing and on land with lower quality. In most CEEC, the production potentials are larger than the current energy use in the more favourable scenarios. Bulk of the biomass potential can be produced at costs lower than 2€/GJ. High potentials combined with the low cost levels gives CEEC major export opportunities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It is expected that international biomass trade will significantly increase in the coming years because of the possibly lower costs of imported biomass, the better supply security through diversification and the support by energy and climate policies of various countries. Concerns about potential negative effects of large-scale biomass production and export, like deforestation or the competition between food and biomass production, have led to the demand for sustainability criteria and certification systems that can control biomass trade. Because neither such criteria and indicator sets nor certification systems for sustainable biomass trade are yet available, the objective of this study is to generate information that can help to develop them. For these purposes, existing certification systems, sets of sustainability criteria or guidelines on environmental or social sound management of resources are analyzed with the purpose to learn about the requirements, contents and organizational set ups of a certification system for sustainable biomass trade. First, an inventory of existing systems was made; second, their structures were analyzed. Key finding from the analysis of internationally applied certification systems was that they are generally led by an international panel that represents all countries and stakeholders involved in the biomass production and trade activities. In third and fourth steps different approaches to formulate standards were described and a list of more than 100 social, economic, ecological and general criteria for sustainable biomass trade was extracted from the reviewed systems. Fifth, methods to formulate indicators, that make sustainability criteria measurable, and verifiers that are used to control the performance of indicators are described. It is recommended to further develop the criteria and indicator (C&I) sets for sustainable biomass trade by involvement of the relevant stakeholders (e.g. biomass producer and consumer) and the analysis of local conditions (e.g. local production potentials and limits, and preferences of local people). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The technical and economical feasibility of CO2 sequestration in deep coal layers combined with enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) production in the Netherlands has been explored. Annually, 3.4 Mtonne CO2 from chemical installations can be delivered to sequestration locations at 15 €/tonne and another 55 Mtonne from power generating facilities at 40–80 €/tonne. Four potential ECBM areas have been assessed, of which Zuid Limburg is the best location for a test site, while the Achterhoek is more suitable for future large-scale CO2 sequestration. Between 54 Mtonne and 9 Gtonne CO2 can be sequestered in the four areas together, heavily depending on available technology for accessing the coal seams. At the same time, between 0.3 and 60 EJ of coalbed methane can be produced. The optimal configuration may have 1000 m spacing between production wells, and extreme inseam drilling. The price of coalbed methane may become competitive with natural gas when a bonus for CO2 sequestration is applied of about 25 €/tonne. For the long term, on-site hydrogen or power (SOFC) production with direct injection of produced CO2 seems most attractive. Further study is required, most notably more accurate geological surveys, assessment of drilling costs in Dutch context, and environmental impacts of ECBM. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Whether the use of industrial wood pellets for bioenergy is part of the problem of climate change or part of the solution to climate change has been heavily debated in the academic and political arena. The uncertainty around this topic is impeded by contradicting scientific assessments of carbon impacts of wood pellet use. Spatially explicit quantification of the potential carbon impacts of increased industrial wood pellet demand, including both indirect market and land-use change effects, is required to understand potential negative impacts on carbon stored in the landscape. Studies that meet these requirements are scarce. This study assesses the impact of increased wood pellet demand on carbon stocks in the landscape in the Southern US spatially explicitly and includes the effects of demand for other wood products and land-use types. The analysis is based on IPCC calculations and highly detailed survey-based biomass data for different forest types. We compare a trend of increased wood pellet demand between 2010 and 2030 with a stable trend in wood pellet demand after 2010, thereby quantifying the impact of increased wood pellet demand on carbon stocks in the landscape. This study shows that modest increases in wood pellets demand (from 0.5 Mt in 2010 to 12.1 Mt in 2030), compared to a scenario without increase in wood pellet demand (stable demand at 0.5 Mt), may result in carbon stock gains of 103–229 Mt in the landscape in the Southern US. These carbon stock increases occur due to a reduction in natural forest loss and an increase in pine plantation area compared to a stable-demand scenario. Projected carbon impacts of changes in wood pellet demand were smaller than carbon effects of trends in the timber market. We introduce a new methodological framework to include both indirect market and land-use change effects into carbon calculations in the landscape. • Whether wood pellets are reducing or exacerbating climate change is heavily debated. • This spatially explicit study includes indirect effects of markets and land-use. • A modest increase in wood pellet demand result in carbon stock gains of 103–229 Mt. • Carbon gains are due to pine plantation expansion and natural forest conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to analyze whether, and how, uncertainty influences the layout and costs of a CO 2 transportation network. The case without uncertainty is modelled with a perfect foresight (PF) model and with uncertainty with the real option approach (ROA). In this study, uncertainties in the CO 2 price, tariff received per tonne of CO 2 transported, the willingness, probability and moment that sources join the CO 2 transportation network are incorporated in the analysis. The results show that uncertainty leads to higher required CO 2 prices before investments in carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) are made. With a volatility of 47% in the CO 2 price, the required CO 2 price almost triples in comparison with the net present value approach. Hence, under uncertainty less sources are retrofitted with CCS and less CO 2 is captured and stored over time. For instance, for the analyzed case study 31 Mt and 137 Mt CO 2 is projected to be captured in the base scenario of ROA and PF model, respectively, in the period 2015–2050. If the volatility of the CO 2 price is reduced with 50%, 96 Mt is projected to be captured in the ROA, which is still about one third less than in the PF model. Furthermore, the results show that uncertainty leads to less development of trunklines. All this leads to an increase in the transport and storage costs. For instance, for our case study, the average CO 2 transport and storage costs in 2050 increase from 2.8 €/t to 13 €/t in the base scenario of the ROA compared to the PF model. If the volatility is reduced with 50%, the transport and storage costs decrease to 7.5 €/t in the ROA, which is still 2.5 times as much as in the PF model. Our findings indicate that the implementation of CCS can best be stimulated by reducing the volatility of the CO 2 price, reducing capture costs and facilitating cooperation between nearby sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Published estimates of the potential of bioenergy vary widely, mainly due to the heterogeneity of methodologies, assumptions and datasets employed. These discrepancies are confusing for policy and it is thus important to have scientific clarity on the basis of the assessment outcomes. Such clear insights can enable harmonisation of the different assessments. This review explores current state of the art approaches and methodologies used in bioenergy assessments, and identifies key elements that are critical determinants of bioenergy potentials. We apply the lessons learnt from the review exercise to compare and harmonise a selected set of country based bioenergy potential studies, and provide recommendations for conducting more comprehensive assessments. Depending on scenario assumptions, the harmonised technical biomass potential estimates up to 2030 in the selected countries range from 5.2 to 27.3EJ in China, 1.1 to 18.8EJ in India, 2.0 to 10.9EJ in Indonesia, 1.6 to 7.0EJ in Mozambique and 9.3 to 23.5EJ in the US. From the review, we observed that generally, current studies do not cover all the basic (sustainability) elements expected in an ideal bioenergy assessment and there are marked differences in the level of parametric detail and methodological transparency between studies. Land availability and suitability lack spatial detail and especially degraded and marginal lands are poorly evaluated. Competition for water resources is hardly taken into account and biomass yields are based mostly on crude ecological zoning criteria. A few studies take into account improvements in management of agricultural and forestry production systems, but the underlying assumptions are hardly discussed. Competition for biomass resources among the various applications is crudely analysed in most studies and key assumptions such as demographic dynamics, biodiversity protection criteria, etc. are not explicitly discussed. To facilitate more comprehensive bioenergy assessments, we recommend an integrated analytical framework that includes all the key factors, employs high resolution geo-referenced datasets and accounts for potential feedback effects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents an overview of 67 ongoing certification initiatives to safeguard the sustainability of bioenergy. Most recent initiatives are focused on the sustainability of liquid biofuels. Content-wise, most of these initiatives have mainly included environmental principles. Despite serious concerns in various parts of the world on the socio-economic impacts of bioenergy production, these are generally not included in existing bioenergy initiatives. At the same time, the overview shows a strong proliferation of standards. The overview shows that certification has the potential to influence direct, local impacts related to environmental and social effects of direct bioenergy production. Key recommendations to come to an efficient certification system include the need for further harmonization, availability of reliable data and linking indicators on a micro, meso and macro levels. Considering the multiple spatial scales, certification should be combined with additional measurements and tools on a regional, national and international level. The role of bioenergy production on indirect land use change (ILUC) is still very uncertain and current initiatives have rarely captured impacts from ILUC in their standards. Addressing unwanted LUC requires first of all sustainable land use production and good governance, regardless of the end-use of the product. It is therefore recommended to extend measures to mitigate impacts from LUC to other lands and feedstock. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Meeting the Paris Agreement will most likely require the combination of CO 2 capture and biomass in the industrial sector, resulting in net negative emissions. CO 2 capture within the industry has been extensively investigated. However, biomass options have been poorly explored, with literature alluding to technical and economic barriers. In addition, a lack of consistency among studies makes comparing the performance of CO 2 capture and/or biomass use between studies and sectors difficult. These inconsistencies include differences in methodology, system boundaries, level of integration, costs, greenhouse gas intensity of feedstock and energy carriers, and capital cost estimations. Therefore, an integrated evaluation of the techno-economic performance regarding CO 2 capture and biomass use was performed for five energy-intensive industrial sub-sectors. Harmonization results indicate that CO 2 mitigation potentials vary for each sub-sector, resulting in reductions of 1.4–2.7 t CO 2 /t steel (77%–149%), 0.7 t CO 2 /t cement (92%), 0.2 t CO 2 /t crude oil (68%), 1.9 t CO 2 /t pulp (1663%–2548%), and 34.9 t CO 2 /t H 2 (313%). Negative emissions can be reached in the steel, paper and H 2 sectors. Novel bio-based production routes might enable net negative emissions in the cement and (petro)chemical sectors as well. All the above-mentioned potentials can be reached for 100 €/t CO 2 or less. Implementing mitigation options could reduce industrial CO 2 emissions by 10 Gt CO 2 /y by 2050, easily meeting the targets of the 2 °C scenario by the International Energy Agency (1.8 Gt CO 2 /y reduction) for the industrial sector and even the Beyond 2 °C scenario (4.2 Gt CO 2 /y reduction). • Literature review on CO 2 mitigation in steel, cement, chemical, H 2 and paper sectors. • Introduction harmonized methodology to allow comparison between industrial sectors. • All investigated sectors have large reduction potentials for <100 €/t CO 2 avoided. • Negative emissions possible in iron/steel, H 2 and paper sectors. • Potential CO 2 emission reduction of 10 Gt/yr in 2050, easily meeting climate target. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The membrane reactor is a novel technology for the production of hydrogen from natural gas. It promises economic small-scale hydrogen production, e.g. at refuelling stations and has the potential of inexpensive CO2 separation. Four configurations of the membrane reactor have been modelled with Aspenplus to determine its thermodynamic and economic prospects. Overall energy efficiency is 84%HHV without H2 compression (78% with compression up to 482bar). The modelling results also indicate that by using a sweep gas, the membrane reactor can produce a reformer exit stream consisting mainly of CO2 and H2O (>90%mol) suited for CO2 sequestration after water removal with an efficiency loss of only 1%pt. Reforming with a 2MW membrane reactor (250 unit production volume) costs 14$/ including compression, which is more expensive than conventional steam reforming+compression (12$/GJ). It does, however, promise a cheap method of CO2 separation, 14$/t CO2 captured, due to the high purity of the exit stream. The well-to-wheel chain of the membrane reactor has been compared to centralised steam reforming to assess the trade-off between production scale and the construction of a hydrogen and a CO2 distribution infrastructure. If the scale of centralised hydrogen production is below 40MW, the trade-off could be favourable for the membrane reactor with small-scale CO2 capture (18$/GJ including H2 storage, dispensing and CO2 sequestration for 40MW SMR versus 19$/GJ for MR). The membrane reactor might become competitive with conventional steam reforming provided that thin membranes can be combined with high stability and a cheap manufacturing method for the membrane tubes. Thin membranes, industrial utility prices and larger production volumes (i.e. technological learning) might reduce the levelised hydrogen cost of the membrane reactor at the refuelling station to less than 14$/GJ including CO2 sequestration cost, below that of large-scale H2 production with CO2 sequestration (∼15$/GJ). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the face of climate change that may result from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the scarcity of agricultural land and limited competitiveness of biomass energy on the market, it is desirable to increase the performance of bioenergy systems. Multi-product crops, i.e. using a crop partially for energy and partially for material purposes can possibly create additional incomes as well as additional GHG emission reductions. In this study, the performance of several multi-product crop systems is compared to energy crop systems, focused on the costs of primary biomass fuel costs and GHG emission reductions per hectare of biomass production. The sensitivity of the results is studied by means of a Monte-Carlo analysis. The multi-product crops studied are wheat, hemp and poplar in the Netherlands and Poland. GHG emission reductions of these multi-product crop systems are found to be between 0.2 and 2.4Mg CO2eq/(hayr) in Poland and 0.9 and 7.8Mg CO2eq/(hayr) in the Netherlands, while primary biomass fuel costs range from −4.1 to −1.7€/GJ in the Netherlands and from 0.1 to 9.8€/GJ in Poland. Results show that the economic attractiveness of multi-product crops depends strongly on material market prices, crop production costs and crop yields. Net annual GHG emission reductions per hectare are influenced strongly by the specific GHG emission reduction of material use, reference energy systems and GHG emissions of crop production. Multi-product use of crops can significantly decrease primary biomass fuel costs. However, this does not apply in general, but depends on the kind of crops and material uses. For the examples analysed here, net annual GHG emission reductions per hectare are not lowered by multi-product use of crops. Consequently, multi-product crops are not for granted an option to increase the performance of bioenergy systems. Further research on the feasibility of large-scale multi-product crop systems and their impact on land and material markets is desirable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Management strategies for loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda ) plantations in the Southeastern USA can be adapted to fulfill both the demand for wood products and for bioenergy. This study quantifies the impact of plantation management choices on the cumulative carbon balance and the net present value of loblolly pine plantations at the stand level, as well as the wood supply cost for bioenergy production for these different management strategies. The strategies assessed (conventional, additional thinning and short rotation) are characterised by planting density, thinning age and rotation period, each with and without collection and utilization of slash residues for bioenergy. The total wood supply costs for bioenergy include the cultivation, harvesting and transport costs for small diameter trees and slash. The results show that the carbon balance after 100 years is 205 (247), 214 (268) and 149 (195) Mg ha −1 for the conventional, additional thinning, and short rotation loblolly pine plantation management strategies (within parentheses: same strategies with slash utilization). The conventional strategy has the lowest wood supply costs for bioenergy, 47 (46) $ Mg −1 pulpwood, followed by the additional thinning strategy, 50 (49) $ Mg −1 pulpwood, and 54 (52) $ Mg −1 pulpwood for the short rotation management strategy. In conclusion, switching from the current conventional strategy without the utilization of slash for bioenergy to an additional thinning strategy with the use of slash increases the overall carbon accumulation by about 31%, at marginally higher wood supply cost. Adapting plantation management strategies can have a positive effect on the economic performance and on the carbon balance of loblolly pine plantations. Integration of wood supply for bioenergy and traditional forestry sectors can lead to co-benefits in terms of cost reduction and carbon accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to quantify the benefits of switching from a system dependent on traditional biomass to systems running on more efficient fuels and technologies. It is estimated that even when open fires burning fuelwood are replaced by improved cooking stoves (ICSs) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves, and biomass is processed in dedicated biomass power plants, a net reduction in CO 2 emissions is still obtained. The ICS/LPG stove/biomass combustion power plant configuration could provide an average net reduction of 84 kg-C e /tDM. Meanwhile, a net reduction of 105 kg-C e /tDM could be obtained when implementing a ICS/LPG stove/biomass gasification power plant scheme. Main factors influencing the net reduction of CO 2 emissions are technology efficiency and the fraction of non-renewable fuelwood use. The switch from traditional biomass to modern biomass in traditional biomass intensive countries must not only be done to reduce CO 2 emissions but also to avoid indoor pollution and energy poverty. Health improvements should be more important than energy savings. Results also indicate that the use of modern biomass systems not only could provide a reduction of local environmental pollution, but also could boost the local economy by the creation of biomass infrastructures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the feasibility of mobilising maize and wheat residues for large-scale bioenergy applications in South Africa by establishing sustainable residue removal rates and cost of supply based on different production regions. A key objective was to refine the methodology for estimating crop residue harvesting for bioenergy use, while maintaining soil productivity and avoiding displacement of competing residue uses. At current conditions, the sustainable bioenergy potential from maize and wheat residues was estimated to be about 104 PJ. There is potential to increase the amount of crop residues to 238 PJ through measures such as no till cultivation and adopting improved cropping systems. These estimates were based on minimum residues requirements of 2 t ha −1 for soil erosion control and additional residue amounts to maintain 2% SOC level. At the farm gate, crop residues cost between 0.9 and 1.7 $ GJ −1 . About 96% of these residues are available below 1.5 $ GJ −1 . In the improved scenario, up to 85% of the biomass is below 1.3 $ GJ −1 . For biomass deliveries at the conversion plant, about 36% is below 5 $ GJ −1 while in the optimised scenario, about 87% is delivered below 5$ GJ −1 . Co-firing residues with coal results in lower cost of electricity compared to other renewables and significant GHG (CO 2 eq) emissions reduction (up to 0.72 tons MWh −1 ). Establishing sustainable crop residue supply systems in South Africa could start by utilising the existing agricultural infrastructure to secure supply and develop a functional market. It would then be necessary to incentivise improvements across the value chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expansion of the ethanol industry in Brazil faces two important challenges: to reduce total ethanol production costs and to limit the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity of the ethanol produced. The objective of this study is to economically optimize the scale and location of ethanol production plants given the expected expansion of biomass supply regions. A linear optimization model is utilized to determine the optimal location and scale of sugarcane and eucalyptus industrial processing plants given the projected spatial distribution of the expansion of biomass production in the state of Goiás between 2012 and 2030. Three expansion approaches evaluated the impact on ethanol production costs of expanding an existing industry in one time step (one-step), or multiple time steps (multi-step), or constructing a newly emerging ethanol industry in Goiás (greenfield). In addition, the GHG emission intensity of the optimized ethanol supply chains are calculated. Under the three expansion approaches, the total ethanol production costs of sugarcane ethanol decrease from 894 US$/m 3 ethanol in 2015 to 752, 715, and 710 US$/m 3 ethanol in 2030 for the multi-step, one step and greenfield expansion respectively. For eucalyptus, ethanol production costs decrease from 635 US$/m 3 in 2015 to 560 and 543 US$/m 3 in 2030 for the multi-step and one-step approach. A general trend is the use of large scale industrial processing plants, especially towards 2030 due to increased biomass supply. We conclude that a system-wide optimization as a marginal impact on overall production costs. Utilizing all the predefined sugarcane and eucalyptus supply regions up to 2030, the results showed that on average the GHG emission intensity of sugarcane cultivation and processing is −80 kg CO 2 /m 3 , while eucalyptus GHG emission intensity is 1290 kg CO 2 /m 3 . This is due to the high proportion of forest land that is expected to be converted to eucalyptus plantations. Future optimization studies may address further economic or GHG emission improvement potential by optimizing the GHG emission intensity or perform a multi-objective optimization procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an economic outlook of the ethanol industry in Brazil considering different biomass feedstocks and different industrial processing options. A spreadsheet model was designed to account for different feedstocks and industrial processes, and expected trends in biomass yield, sugar- and fibre content, industrial scale and efficiency. Sugarcane and energycane cultivation costs may be reduced from 35 US$ 2010 /TC in 2010 to 27 US$ 2010 /TC and 22 US$ 2010 /TC in 2030 respectively. Eucalyptus and elephant grass cultivation costs could be reduced from 32 to 23 US$ 2010 /tonne wet and 38 to 26 US$ 2010 /tonne wet for eucalyptus and elephant grass. Total ethanol production costs of first generation processing may decrease from 700 US$ 2010 /m 3 in 2010, to 432 US$ 2010 /m 3 in 2030. First generation ethanol production costs may decrease by reduced feedstock costs, increase in sugar content, utilization of cane trash, and use of sweet sorghum. Furthermore, the improvement in industrial efficiency of the first generation process, increasing industrial scale and change to an improved technology are other measures. For second generation technology utilizing eucalyptus, the total ethanol production costs could be strongly reduced to 424 US$ 2010 /m 3 in 2030. Costs reduction measures for second generation industrial processing include reduced feedstock costs, increasing industrial efficiency and scale, and a change to more advanced industrial process. Overall, biomass yield, increase in sugar content of sugarcane, and improved industrial efficiency are important parameters in total ethanol production costs. Ongoing RD&D effort and commercialization of second generation industrial processing may result in the lowest ethanol production costs for second generation processing in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing production of modern bioenergy carriers and biomaterials intensifies the competition for different applications of biomass. To be able to optimize and develop biomass utilization in a sustainable way, this paper first reviews the status and prospects of biomass value chains for heat, power, fuels and materials, next assesses their current and long-term levelized production costs and avoided emissions, and then compares their greenhouse gas abatement costs. At present, the economically and environmentally preferred options are wood chip and pellet combustion in district heating systems and large-scale cofiring power plants (75–81 US$ 2005 /tCO 2 -eq avoided ), and large-scale fermentation of low-cost Brazilian sugarcane to ethanol (−65 to −53 $/tCO 2 -eq avoided ) or biomaterials (−60 to −50 $/tCO 2 -eq avoided for ethylene and −320 to −228 $/tCO 2 -eq avoided for PLA; negative costs represent cost-effective options). In the longer term, the cultivation and use of lignocellulosic energy crops can play an important role in reducing the costs and improving the emission balance of biomass value chains. Key conversion technologies for lignocellulosic biomass are large-scale gasification (bioenergy and biomaterials) and fermentation (biofuels and biomaterials). However, both routes require improvement of their technological and economic performance. Further improvements can be attained by biorefineries that integrate different conversion technologies to maximize the use of all biomass components. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Torrefaction is a promising bioenergy pre-treatment technology, with potential to make a major contribution to the commodification of biomass. However, there is limited scientific knowledge on the techno-economic performance of torrefaction. This study therefore improves available knowledge on torrefaction by providing detailed insights into state of the art prospects of the commercial utilisation of torrefaction technology over time. Focussing on and based on the current status of the compact moving bed reactor, we identify process performance characteristics such as thermal efficiency and mass yield and discuss their determining factors through analysis of mass and energy balances. This study has shown that woody biomass can be torrefied with a thermal and mass efficiency of 94% and 48% respectively (on a dry ash free basis). For straw, the corresponding theoretical energetic efficiency is 96% and mass efficiency is 65%. In the long term, the technical performance of torrefaction processes is expected to improve and energy efficiencies are expected to be at least 97% as optimal torgas use and efficient heat transfer are realised. Short term production costs for woody biomass TOPs (torrefied pellets) are estimated to be between 3.3 and 4.8 US$/GJLHV, falling to 2.1–5.1 US$/GJLHV in the long term. At such cost levels, torrefied pellets would become competitive with traditional pellets. For full commercialisation, torrefaction reactors still require to be optimised. Of importance to torrefaction system performance is the achievement of consistent and homogeneous, fully hydrophobic and stable product, capable of utilising different feedstocks, at desired end-use energy densities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates the economics of integrated gasification polygeneration (IG-PG) facilities and assesses under which market conditions flexible facilities outperform static facilities. In this study, the facilities use Eucalyptus wood pellets (EP), torrefied wood pellets (TOPS) and Illinois #6 coal as feedstock to produce electricity, FT-liquids, methanol and urea. All facilities incorporate CCS. The findings show production costs from static IG-PG facilities ranging between 12 and 21€/GJ using coal, 19–33€/GJ using TOPS and 22–38€/GJ using EP, which is above the average market prices. IG-PG facilities can become competitive if capital costs drop by 10%–27% for coal based facilities. Biomass based facilities will need lower biomass pellet prices or higher CO2 credit prices. Biomass becomes competitive with coal at a CO2 credit price of 50–55€/t CO2. Variations in feedstock, CO2 credit and electricity prices can be offset by operating a feedstock flexible IG-PG facility, which can switch between coal and TOPS, thereby altering its electricity production. The additional investment is around 0.5% of the capital costs of a dedicated coal based IG-PG facility. At 30€/t CO2, TOPS will be the preferred feedstock for 95% of the time at a feedstock price of 5.7€/GJ. At these conditions, FT-liquids (gasoline/diesel) can be produced for 15.8€/GJ (116 $/bbl). Historic records show price variations between 5.7 and 7.3€/GJ for biomass pellet, 1.0–5.6€/GJ for coal and 0–32€/t CO2. Within these price ranges, coal is generally the preferred feedstock, but occasionally biomass is preferred. Lower biomass prices will increase the frequency of switching feedstock preference from coal to biomass, raising the desire for flexibility. Of the three investigated chemicals, an IG-PG facility producing FT-liquids benefits the most from flexibility. Our study suggests that if the uncertainty in commodity prices is high, a small additional investment can make flexible IG-PG facilities attractive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this study, the spatial variation of potential environmental impacts of bioenergy crops is quantitatively assessed. The cultivation of sugar beet and Miscanthus for bioethanol production in the North of the Netherlands is used as a case study. The environmental impacts included are greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (during lifecycle and related to direct land use change), soil quality, water quantity and quality, and biodiversity. Suitable methods are selected and adapted based on an extensive literature review. The spatial variation in environmental impacts related to the spatial heterogeneity of the physical context is assessed using Geographical Information System (GIS). The case study shows that there are large spatial variations in environmental impacts of the introduction of bioenergy crops. Land use change (LUC) to sugar beet generally causes more negative environmental impacts than LUC to Miscanthus. LUC to Miscanthus could have positive environmental impacts in some areas. The most negative environmental impacts of a shift towards sugar beet and Miscanthus occur in the western wet pasture areas. The spatially combined results of the environmental impacts illustrate that there are several trade offs between environmental impacts: there are no areas were no negative environmental impacts occur. The assessment demonstrates a framework to identify areas with potential negative environmental impacts of bioenergy crop production and areas where bioenergy crop production have little negative or even positive environmental impacts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This article investigates technical possibilities and performances of flexible integrated gasification polygeneration (IG-PG) facilities equipped with CO2 capture for the near future. These facilities can produce electricity during peak hours, while switching to the production of chemicals during off-peak hours. Several simulations were performed to investigate the influence of substituting feedstock and production on IG-PG facility output, load and efficiency. These simulations were done using a detailed AspenPlus simulation model of a Shell entrained flow gasifier combined with conversion facilities. In this model carbon-rich feedstocks (oil residues, coal and biomass) were converted to a variety of products (H2, electricity, FT-liquids, methanol and urea) using state-of-the-art technology. The size of the gasifier was limited to the equivalent of 2000MWth Il #6 coal input. Overall efficiency of the simulated non-flexible configurations to convert pure coal or pure wood pellets to electricity (40%HHV vs 38%HHV), FT-liquids (60%HHV vs 55%HHV), methanol (53%HHV vs 49%HHV) or urea (51%HHV vs 47%HHV) are in good agreement with the literature. Using torrefied wood pellets instead of pure wood pellets reduces the penalty drop in efficiency compared to coal. Moreover, torrefied wood pellets have superior energetic density, handling and feeding compared to wood pellets. In this analysis, the H2:CO ratio of the sweet syngas was fixed to match FT-liquids criterion. As a result, overall CO2 capture rates are low, around 56–65%, depending on the feedstock used. Still, especially with FT-liquids and methanol production, CO2 emissions at the facility are significantly reduced; less than 20% of the carbon feedstock entering the facility is emitted with the flue gas. Applying biomass and CO2 capture shows great opportunities to produce CO2-neutral electricity or chemicals. When the biomass fraction exceeds 40% on an energy basis, production is CO2-neutral, independent of what is produced. Biomass can be co-fed up till 50% on an energy basis. Higher fractions cause significant fouling on cooling equipment. A small part-load penalty is observed during the substitution of coal by biomass. When changing from pure coal to pure wood pellets, the power case suffers a 2.5% efficiency drop, while all three chemical cases have an efficiency drop of less than 1%. At the same time total output is reduced to 67–69%, mainly because of the lower energy density of biomass. By over-dimensioning the gasifier and gas cleanup and optimisation section this drop can be eliminated. The syngas can be tailored to the desired composition regardless of the used feedstock. Therefore, the chemical conversion sections only have to cope with a reduction in syngas flow and not with a change in syngas composition. Altering production between chemicals and electricity is possible, although the load of the conversion sections should remain between 40% and 100% to prevent operational problems. This gives a high degree of flexibility. Complete substitution between chemical and power production while using the same feedstock is possible for the methanol and urea cases. The FT-liquids case is restricted to 60–100% load of the chemical conversion section to prevent that the gas turbine load is reduced below 40%. The economic aspects of flexible IG-PG facilities are addressed in part B. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This work assesses the viability of regional biomass chains by comparing the economic performance of potential bioenergy crops with the performance of current agricultural land uses. The biomass chains assessed are ethanol production from Miscanthus and from sugar beet in the North of the Netherlands. The competitiveness of bioenergy crops is assessed by comparing the Net Present Value (NPV) of perennial crops, current rotations, and rotation schemes which include additional years of sugar beet. The current land use and soil suitability for present and bioenergy crops are mapped using a geographical information system (GIS) and the spatial distribution of economic profitability is used to indicate where land use change is most likely to occur. Bioethanol production costs are then compared with petrol costs. The productions costs comprise costs associated with cultivation, harvest, transport and conversion to ethanol. The NPVs and cost of feedstock production are calculated for seven soil suitability classes. The results show that bioenergy crops are not competitive with current cropping systems on soils classed as “suitable”. On less suitable soils, the return on intensively managed crops is low and perennial crops achieve better NPVs than common rotations. Our results showed that minimum feedstock production costs are 5.4€/GJ for Miscanthus and 9.7€/GJ for sugar beet depending on soil suitability. Ethanol from Miscanthus (24€/GJ) is a better option than ethanol from sugar beet (27€/GJ) in terms of costs. The cost of bioethanol production from domestically cultivated crops is not competitive with petrol (12.34€/GJ) production under current circumstances. We propose that the method demonstrated in this study, provides a generic approach for identifying viable locations for bioenergy crop production based on soil properties and current land use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study analyzes the economic feasibility of sustainable smallholder bio-energy production under semi-arid conditions. The eastern part of Shinyanga region in Tanzania was chosen as a case study area. Three different sustainable biomass energy supply systems were compared by means of cost/benefit analysis: a small-scale forestation project for carbon sequestration, a short rotation woodlot and a Jatropha plantation, thereby using the produced Jatropha oil as a substitute for fuelwood or diesel. Rotational woodlots are most profitable with a Net Present Value of up to US$2007 1165/ha, a return on labour of up to US$2007 6.69/man-day and a fuelwood production cost of US$2007 0.53/GJ, compared to a local market price of US$2007 1.95/GJ. With a production cost of US$2007 19.60/GJ, Jatropha oil is too expensive to be used as an alternative for fuelwood. Instead it can be utilized economically as a diesel substitute, at an observed diesel cost of US$2007 1.49/l. The mean annual biomass increment (MAI) in semi-arid East Shinyanga is too low to collect sufficient benefits from trading forestation carbon credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to cover the costs of forestation and forest management. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The importance of spatial resolution for energy modelling has increased in the last years. Incorporating more spatial resolution in energy models presents wide benefits, but it is not straightforward, as it might compromise their computational performance. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of spatial resolution in energy models, including benefits, challenges and future research avenues. The paper is divided in four parts: first, it reviews and analyses the applications of geographic information systems (GIS) for energy modelling in the literature. GIS analyses are found to be relevant to analyse how meteorology affects renewable production, to assess infrastructure needs, design and routing, and to analyse resource allocation, among others. Second, it analyses a selection of large scale energy modelling tools, in terms of how they can include spatial data, which resolution they have and to what extent this resolution can be modified. Out of the 34 energy models reviewed, 16 permit to include regional coverage, while 13 of them permit to include a tailor-made spatial resolution, showing that current available modelling tools permit regional analysis in large scale frameworks. The third part presents a collection of practices used in the literature to include spatial resolution in energy models, ranging from aggregated methods where the spatial granularity is non-existent to sophisticated clustering methods. Out of the spatial data clustering methods available in the literature, k-means and max-p have been successfully used in energy related applications showing promising results. K-means permits to cluster large amounts of spatial data at a low computational cost, while max-p ensures contiguity and homogeneity in the resulting clusters. The fourth part aims to apply the findings and lessons learned throughout the paper to the North Sea region. This region combines large amounts of planned deployment of variable renewable energy sources with multiple spatial claims and geographical constraints, and therefore it is ideal as a case study. We propose a complete modelling framework for the region in order to fill two knowledge gaps identified in the literature: the lack of offshore integrated system modelling, and the lack of spatial analysis while defining the offshore regions of the modelling framework. • Benefits and challenges of enhancing spatial resolution in energy models are identified. • 34 energy system models are analysed in terms of their level of spatial resolution. • Clustering methods used for spatial data in energy models are presented and analysed. • An integrated and spatially resolved framework for the North Sea region is introduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]