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Currently, in the context of biorefinery and bioeconomy, lignocellulosic biomass is increasingly used to produce biofuels, biochemicals and other value-added products. Microwaves and ultrasound are emerging techniques that enable efficient and environmentally sustainable routes in the transformation of lignocellulosic biomass. This review presents some of the most important works published in the last few years on the application of microwaves and/or ultrasound in lignocellulosic materials pretreatment and can be used as a starting point for research into this theme. This review is divided into four parts. In Part I, the theoretical fundamentals of microwave and ultrasound treatments are reviewed. Dielectric constants for biomass, factors that influence pretreatment, are some of the subjects addressed. In Part II, the effects that these techniques have on lignocellulosic biomass (on the size and surface area of the particle; on the content of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose; on the crystallinity index of cellulose; on the effect of solubilization of organic matter; on hydrolysis and reduction of sugars) are discussed. In Part III, emphasis is given to the contribution of microwaves and ultrasound in obtaining value-added products. In this context, several examples of liquefaction and extraction procedures are presented. Part IV describes examples of performing sonocatalysis on lignocellulosic biomass to obtain value-added products, such as furfural, whose production is significantly reduced by ultrasound treatment.

Plant sterols (PS) are cholesterol-like terpenoids widely spread in the kingdom Plantae. Being the target of extensive research for more than a century, PS have topped with evidence of having beneficial effects in healthy subjects and applications in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. However, many gaps in several fields of PS’s research still hinder their widespread practical applications. In fact, many of the mechanisms associated with PS supplementation and their health benefits are still not fully elucidated. Furthermore, compared to cholesterol data, many complex PS chemical structures still need to be fully characterized, especially in oxidized PS. On the other hand, PS molecules have also been the focus of structural modifications for applications in diverse areas, including not only the above-mentioned but also in e.g., drug delivery systems or alternative matrixes for functional foods and fats. All the identified drawbacks are also superimposed by the need of new PS sources and technologies for their isolation and purification, taking into account increased environmental and sustainability concerns. Accordingly, current and future trends in PS research warrant discussion.

Rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) were synthesized using exclusively lignin-based polyol (LBP) obtained via the oxyalkylation of kraft lignin with propylene carbonate (PC). Using the design of experiments methodology combined with statistical analysis, the formulations were optimized to obtain a bio-based RPUF with low thermal conductivity and low apparent density to be used as a lightweight insulating material. The thermo-mechanical properties of the ensuing foams were compared with those of a commercial RPUF and a RPUF (RPUF-conv) produced using a conventional polyol. The bio-based RPUF obtained using the optimized formulation exhibited low thermal conductivity (0.0289 W/m·K), low density (33.2 kg/m3), and reasonable cell morphology. Although the bio-based RPUF has slightly lower thermo-oxidative stability and mechanical properties than RPUF-conv, it is still suitable for thermal insulation applications. In addition, the fire resistance of this bio-based foam has been improved, with its average heat release rate (HRR) reduced by 18.5% and its burn time extended by 25% compared to RPUF-conv. Overall, this bio-based RPUF has shown potential to replace petroleum-based RPUF as an insulating material. This is the first report regarding the use of 100% unpurified LBP obtained via the oxyalkylation of LignoBoost kraft lignin in the production of RPUFs.

The effects of treating industrial (laboratory-unwashed) oxygen-delignified eucalypt kraft pulp with a commercial endo-xylanase (X) on ECF bleaching performance were evaluated. Changes in fibre morphology, pulp bleachability and quality, and bleaching effluent parameters were assessed. Although no significant morphological changes were observed, fibres showed some external fibrillation. The X stage reduced both the amount and the integrity of xylans remaining in the fibres, causing their redistribution inside the cell wall. In bleaching, the X treatment allowed the reduction of ClO2 and NaOH loads by 20 and 10%, respectively. Furthermore, the brightness stability of enzyme-treated bleached pulps was improved, which was assigned to the decrease in the content of hexenuronic acid residues. The X treatment did not affect the cellulosic counterpart of pulp and did not cause a significant impact on the papermaking properties, even when xylan degradation was somewhat excessive. The enzymatic treatment caused a significant increase in the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the respective effluent. The realistic conditions used provide a better insight into the overall impact of this technology at a pulp mill.

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are a class of metal oxide complexes with a large structural diversity. Effective control of the final chemical and physical properties of POMs could be provided by fine-tuning chemical modifications, such as the inclusion of other metals or non-metal ions. In addition, the nature and type of the counterion can also impact POM properties, like solubility. Besides, POMs may combine with carbon materials as graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide or carbon nanotubes to enhance electronic conductivity, with noble metal nanoparticles to increase catalytic and functional sites, be introduced into metal-organic frameworks to increase surface area and expose more active sites, and embedded into conducting polymers. The possibility to design POMs to match properties adequate for specific sensing applications turns them into highly desirable chemicals for sensor sensitive layers. This review intends to provide an overview of POM structures used in sensors (electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric), highlighting their main functional features. Furthermore, this review aims to summarize the reported applications of POMs in sensors for detecting and determining analytes in different matrices, many of them with biochemical and clinical relevance, along with analytical figures of merit and main virtues and problems of such devices. Special emphasis is given to the stability of POMs sensitive layers, detection limits, selectivity, the pH working range and throughput.

Water absorption capacity is a key characteristic of cellulosic pulps used for different commodities. This property is influenced by the affinity of the pulp fiber surface with water, chemical composition of the pulp, morphology, and organization of fibers in the network. In this study, surface properties of six industrial Eucalyptus bleached kraft pulps (fluff pulps) dry-defiberized in a Hammermill, which were obtained by wood pulping and pulp bleaching under different production conditions, were studied while employing dynamic water vapor sorption and contact angles measurements. The absorption properties of air-laid pulp pads were analyzed following the absorbency testing procedure and the relationship between these properties and pulp’s chemical composition and fiber network structure were assessed by multivariate analysis. The results showed that the accessibility of the fiber surface is related to the reduction of the contact angles, but, at the same time, to the longer absorption time and less absorption capacity of the fiber network. Therefore, the absorption properties of the pulps are not necessarily directly related to their surface properties. Indeed, absorptivity is related to the surface chemical composition, fiber morphology, and fiber network structure. Thus, surface carboxylic groups promote total water uptake, resulting in better absorption capacity. Greater fiber coarseness and deformations (curl and kink) provide a less wettable surface, but a more porous network with higher specific volume, resulting in more absorbent air-laid formulations.

This study aimed to develop new rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) for thermal insulation based on kraft lignin, the main by-product of the pulp and paper industry. Crude lignin-based polyol (LBP) was obtained via the oxyalkylation of kraft lignin using propylene carbonate (PC). A design of experiments (DoE) was used to evaluate the effect of the isocyanate (NCO)-to-hydroxyl (OH)-group’s ratio, the content of crude LBP, the blowing agent (BA), and catalyst on the thermal conductivity and density of RPUFs. Statistical analysis revealed that the increase in crude LBP and BA content in the formulation decreases the thermal conductivity and density of the foams. In addition, the fact that LBP is a viscous polyol containing PC-oligomers appears to affect the cellular structure of RPUFs, and consequently reduces their mechanical and thermal properties. The main novelty of this study consisted in the careful optimization of the formulation, namely, with regard to the type of blowing agent and with the high content of crude LBP obtained from the oxyalkylation of LignoBoost kraft lignin without purification to obtain good quality RPUF that meets market requirements for insulation materials.

Lignin-based polyol was obtained via oxyalkylation reaction with propylene carbonate using eucalyptus kraft lignin isolated from the industrial cooking liquor by the Lignoboost® procedure. This lignin-based polyol (LBP) was used without purification in the preparation of polyurethane (PU) adhesives combined with polymeric 4,4′-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate (pMDI). A series of adhesives were obtained by varying the NCO/OH ratio of PU counterparts (pMDI and LBPs) and their performance was evaluated by gluing wood pieces under predefined conditions. The adhesion properties of the novel PU adhesive were compared with those of a commercial PU adhesive (CPA). The occurrence and extent of curing reactions and changes in the polymeric network of PA were monitored by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic mechanical analysis. Although the lap shear strength and glass transition temperature of the lignin-based PU adhesives have increased steadily with the NCO/OH ratio ranging from 1.1–2.2, chemical aging resistance can be compromised when the NCO/OH is very low. It was found that the lignin-based PU adhesive with an NCO/OH ratio of 1.3 showed better chemical resistance and adhesion efficiency than CPA possibly because the NCO/OH in the latter is too high as revealed by FTIR spectroscopy. Despite some lower thermal stability and shorter gelation time of lignin-based PU than CPA, the former revealed great potential to reduce the use of petroleum-derived polyols and isocyanates with potential application in the furniture industry as wood bonding adhesive.

All-lignin coating formulations were prepared while combining water-soluble cationic kraft lignin (quaternized LignoBoost®, CL) and anionic lignosulphonate (LS). The electrostatic attraction between positively charged CL and negatively charged LS led to the formation of insoluble self-organized macromolecule aggregates that align to films. The structures of the formed layers were evaluated by atomic force microscopy (AFM), firstly on glass lamina using dip-coating deposition and then on handsheets and industrial uncoated paper using roll-to-roll coating in a layer-by-layer mode. Coated samples were also characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS), and contact angle measurements. It was suggested that the structure of all-lignin aggregates is the result of the interaction of amphiphilic water-soluble lignin molecules leading to their specifically ordered mutual arrangement depending on the order and the mode of their application on the surface. The all-lignin coating of cellulosic fiber imparts lower air permeability and lower free surface energy to paper, mainly due to a decrease in surface polarity, thus promoting the paper’s hydrophobic properties. Moderate loading of lignin coating formulations (5–6 g m−2) did not affect the mechanical strength of the paper.

The production of regenerated cellulosic fibres, such as viscose, modal and lyocell, is based mainly on the use of dissolving wood pulp as raw material. Enzymatic processes are an excellent alternative to conventional chemical routes in the production of dissolving pulp, in terms of energy efficiency, reagent consumption and pulp yield. The two main characteristics of a dissolving pulp are the cellulose purity and the molecular weight, both of which can be controlled with the aid of enzymes. A purification process for paper-grade kraft pulp has been proposed, based on the use of xylanases in combination with hot and cold caustic extraction, without the conventional pre-hydrolysis step before kraft pulping. This enzyme aided purification allowed the production of a dissolving pulp that met the specifications for the manufacture of viscose, < 3% xylan, > 92% ISO brightness and 70% Fock’s reactivity. Endoglucanases (EGs) can efficiently reduce the average molecular weight of the cellulose while simultaneously increasing the pulp reactivity for viscose production. It is shown in this study that lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases act synergistically with EGs in the modification of bleached dissolving pulp.

Currently, the pulp and paper industry generates around 50–70 million tons of lignin annually, which is mainly burned for energy recovery. Lignin, being a natural aromatic polymer rich in functional hydroxyl groups, has been drawing the interest of academia and industry for its valorization, especially for the development of polymeric materials. Among the different types of polymers that can be derived from lignin, polyurethanes (PUs) are amid the most important ones, especially due to their wide range of applications. This review encompasses available technologies to isolate lignin from pulping processes, the main approaches to convert solid lignin into a liquid polyol to produce bio-based polyurethanes, the challenges involving its characterization, and the current technology assessment. Despite the fact that PUs derived from bio-based polyols, such as lignin, are important in contributing to the circular economy, the use of isocyanate is a major environmental hot spot. Therefore, the main strategies that have been used to replace isocyanates to produce non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPUs) derived from lignin are also discussed.

Systemic fungal infections are associated with significant morbidity and mortality, and Candida albicans is the most common causative agent. Recognition of yeast cells by immune cell surface receptors can trigger phagocytosis of fungal pathogens and a pro-inflammatory response that may contribute to fungal elimination. Nevertheless, the elicited inflammatory response may be deleterious to the host by causing excessive tissue damage. We developed a nanoparticle-based approach to modulate the host deleterious inflammatory consequences of fungal infection by using β1,3-glucan-functionalized polystyrene (β-Glc-PS) nanoparticles. β-Glc-PS nanoparticles decreased the levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and IL-12p40 detected in in vitro culture supernatants of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and macrophage challenged with C. albicans cells. Moreover, β-Glc-PS nanoparticles impaired the production of reactive oxygen species by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells incubated with C. albicans. This immunomodulatory effect was dependent on the nanoparticle size. Overall, β-Glc-PS nanoparticles reduced the proinflammatory response elicited by fungal cells in mononuclear phagocytes, setting the basis for a targeted therapy aimed at protecting the host by lowering the inflammatory cost of infection.

Lignosulfonates (LS) are products from the sulfite pulping process that could be applied as renewable environmentally-friendly polymeric surfactants. Being widely used as plasticizers and water-reducing admixtures in concrete formulations LS compete in the market with petroleum-based superplasticizers, such as naphthalene sulfonate formaldehyde polycondensate (NSF) and copolymer polycarboxylate ethers (PCE). In this work, different chemical modification strategies were used to improve LS performance as dispersants for concrete formulations. One strategy consisted in increasing the molecular weight of LS through different approaches, such as laccase and polyoxometalate-mediated polymerization, glyoxalation, and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The other strategy consisted of preparing LS-based non-ionic polymeric dispersants using two different epoxidized oligomer derivatives of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and poly(propylene glycol) (PPG). Modified LS were used to prepare cement pastes, which were examined for their fluidity. Results revealed that the most promising products are PPG-modified LS due to the introduction of PPG chains by reaction with phenolic moieties in LS. The enhanced dispersant efficiency of the ensuing products is probably related not only to electrostatic repulsion caused by the sulfonic ionizable groups in LS but also to steric hindrance phenomena due to the grafted bulky PPG chains.

In this study, lignosulfonate (LS) from the acid sulfite pulping of eucalypt wood was used to synthesize LS-based polyurethanes (PUs) doped with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) within the range of 0.1–1.4% w/w, yielding a unique conducting copolymer composite, which was employed as a sensitive material for all-solid-state potentiometric chemical sensors. LS-based PUs doped with 1.0% w/w MWCNTs exhibited relevant electrical conductivity suitable for sensor applications. The LS-based potentiometric sensor displayed a near-Nernstian or super-Nernstian response to a wide range of transition metals, including Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI), Hg(II), and Ag(I) at pH 7 and Cr(VI) at pH 2. It also exhibited a redox response to the Fe(II)/(III) redox pair at pH 2. Unlike other lignin-based potentiometric sensors in similar composite materials, this LS-based flexible polymeric membrane did not show irreversible complexation with Hg(II). Only a weak response toward ionic liquids, [C2mim]Cl and ChCl, was registered. Unlike LS-based composites comprising MWCNTs, those doped with graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO (rGO), and graphite (Gr) did not reveal the same electrical conductivity, even with loads up to 10% (w/w), in the polymer composite. This fact is associated, at least partially, with the different filler dispersion abilities within the polymeric matrix.

A crucial problem for laminate producers is the dimensional instability of decorative papers during soaking in aqueous solutions, but the source of this dilemma is not completely understood yet. In this study, eight commercial decorative papers of similar fiber composition and sizing were analyzed for their structural, physical, and mechanical properties. These properties were examined for their correlations to the dimensional stability of papers when moistened, as assessed by the wet stretch dynamics. Structure-to-property relationships were evaluated by principal component analysis (PCA). Within the set of parameters examined, PCA revealed that fiber orientation and the content of fillers/pigments influenced the wet expansion of paper web and affected its margins and dimensions in longitudinal and transverse directions of the paper machine. These variables are discussed within the context of decorative paper engineering in order to produce high performance papers with regular wet expansion properties.

Ellagitannins (ETs), characterized by their diversity and chemical complexity, belong to the class of hydrolysable tannins that, via hydrolysis under acidic or alkaline conditions, can yield ellagic acid (EA). They are mostly found as a part of extractives in angiosperms. As known antioxidants and chelators, EA and EA derivatives are drawing an increasing interest towards extensive technical and biomedical applications. The latter ones include possible antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, hepato- and cardioprotective, chemopreventive, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, gastroprotective, antihyperlipidemic, and antidepressant-like activities, among others. EA’s synthesis and production challenges prompt further research on new methods and alternative sources. Conventional and prospective methods and raw materials for the production of EA and its derivatives are reviewed. Among the potential sources of EA, the residues and industrial streams of the pulp industry have been highlighted and considered as an alluring alternative in terms of commercial exploitation.

This study reports the synthesis of polyurethane–lignin copolymer blended with carbon multilayer nanotubes to be used in all-solid-state potentiometric chemical sensors. Known applicability of lignin-based polyurethanes doped with carbon nanotubes for chemical sensing was extended to eucalyptus LignoBoost® kraft lignin containing increased amounts of polyphenolic groups from concomitant tannins that were expected to impart specificity and sensitivity to the sensing material. Synthesized polymers were characterized using FT-MIR spectroscopy, electrical impedance spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry and are used for manufacturing of all solid-state potentiometric sensors. Potentiometric sensor with LignoBoost® kraft lignin-based polyurethane membrane displayed theoretical response and high selectivity to Cu (II) ions, as well as long-term stability.

The valorization of lignins as renewable aromatic feedstock is of utmost importance in terms of the use of sustainable resources. This study provides a deductive approach towards market-oriented lignin-derived antioxidants by ascertaining the direct effect of different structural features of lignin on the reactivity of its phenolic OH groups in the radical scavenging reactions. The antioxidant activity of a series of compounds, modeling lignin structural units, was experimentally characterized and rationalized, using thermodynamic descriptors. The calculated O−H bond dissociation enthalpies (BDE) of characteristic lignin subunits were used to predict the modification pathways of technical lignins. The last ones were isolated by soda delignification from different biomass sources and their oligomeric fractions were studied as a raw material for modification and production of optimized antioxidants. These were characterized in terms of chemical structure, molecular weight distribution, content of the functional groups, and the antioxidant activity. The developed approach for the targeted modification of lignins allowed the products competitive with two commercial synthetic phenolic antioxidants in both free radical scavenging and stabilization of thermooxidative destruction of polyurethane films.

Two industrial elemental chlorine free (ECF) bleaching sequences, D0(EOP)D1(EP)D2 and OQ(PO)DP, are compared with respect to the bulk content of lignin, carboxyl, hexeneuronic acids (HexA), and reducing groups after each bleaching stage. HexA groups contribute significantly to the total content of carboxyl groups, and their degradation during chlorine dioxide bleaching is reflected by a decrease of the carboxyl content. The higher degradation using an enhanced use of oxygen-based bleaching chemicals is associated with a higher fiber charge reduction, mainly due to xylan depletion. Additionally, the effect of process variables of a laboratory final hydrogen peroxide stage on the chemical composition of the fully bleached pulp (D0(EOP)D1P and OQ(PO)DP) is studied. The ability of final peroxide bleaching to raise the content of carboxyl groups is dependent on the operating conditions and pulp bleaching history. A balance between carbohydrate oxidation and dissolution of oxidized groups determines the effect on fiber charge. The effect of hydrogen peroxide stabilizers added into the final stage on the content of carboxyl groups is also reported.

Porphyra dioica is a commercial seaweed consumed all over the world, mostly in the shape of nori sheets used for “sushi” preparation. It is a well-known part of the Asian diet with health benefits, which have been associated, among others, to the high levels of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in this red alga. However, other highly valued lipids of Porphyra are polar lipids that remain largely undescribed and can have both nutritional value and bioactivity, thus could contribute to the valorization of this seaweed. In this context, the present work aims to identify the lipidome of two life cycle stages of the Atlantic species Porphyra dioica: the early life stage conchocelis produced in an indoor-nursery, and young blades produced outdoors using an integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) framework. Both the blades (gametophyte) and conchocelis (sporophyte) are commercialized in the food and cosmetics sectors. Liquid chromatography coupled to Q–Exactive high resolution-mass spectrometry (MS) platform was used to gain insight into the lipidome of these species. Our results allowed the identification of 110 and 100 lipid molecular species in the lipidome of the blade and conchocelis, respectively. These lipid molecular species were distributed as follows (blade/conchocelis): 14/15 glycolipids (GLs), 93/79 phospholipids (PLs), and 3/6 betaine lipids. Both life stages displayed a similar profile of GLs and comprised 20:4(n-6) and 20:5(n-3) fatty acids that contribute to n-3 and n-6 fatty acid pool recorded and rank among the molecular species with higher potential bioactivity. PLs’ profile was different between the two life stages surveyed, mainly due to the number and relative abundance of molecular species. This finding suggests that differences between both life stages were more likely related with shifts in the lipids of extraplastidial membranes rather than in plastidial membranes. PLs contained n-6 and n-3 precursors and in both life stages of Porphyra dioica the n-6/n-3 ratio recorded was less than 2, highlighting the potential benefits of using these life stages in human diet to prevent chronic diseases. Atherogenic and thrombogenic indexes of blades (0.85 and 0.49, respectively) and conchocelis (0.34 and 0.30, respectively) are much lower than those reported for other Rhodophyta, which highlights their potential application as food or as functional ingredients. Overall, MS-based platforms represent a powerful tool to characterize lipid metabolism and target lipids along different life stages of algal species displaying complex life cycles (such as Porphyra dioica), contributing to their biotechnological application.

The structural features of four different kraft papers were related to their surface properties and to the response upon industrial impregnation with phenol−formaldehyde (PF) resin. The chemical composition and the structure of paper were suggested to be important factors determining the interaction with PF resin, which was assessed by contact angle measurements and surface energy analysis. The presence of fatty matter (extractives) and inorganic fillers together with structural anisotropy of paper confers the difference in affinity of the face and backside of papers toward PF resin. This affects the resin distribution in impregnated precured kraft papers as revealed by microfluorescence spectroscopic analysis of transversal cuts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThe amount of non-cellulosic glucans in Eucalyptus globuluswood (approx. 4.5%) was assessed by extraction of sawdust with a 0.5 M NaOH solution at 90–120°C and the structural features were elucidated in a glucan-enriched polysaccharide fraction isolated by hot water extraction (120°C, 2 h). Isolated soluble glucans were characterized by wet chemistry methods and a set of 1D and 2D NMR techniques. The major proportion of glucans consisted of amylose (20%) and amylopectin (80%), although a small proportion of ?-(1?3)-glucan (<0.2% on wood weight) was also detected. Although glucans are easily removed in the initial phase of kraft pulping, notable amounts were found in unbleached pulp and it was supposed that in the final stage of kraft pulping a fraction of ?-glucan is precipitated onto the fiber surface and contributes to the pulp yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A kinetic study of the oxidation of substituted phenols with either vanadium(v) polyoxotungstate, [α-SiVVW11O40]5− (viz. SiW11V), or manganese(iii) polyoxotungstate, [α-SiMnIIIW11(H2O)O39]5− (viz. SiW11Mn), has been carried out. Because the redox potentials of the polyoxometalate SiW11V and SiW11Mn compounds, viz. POMs, are 0.67 and 0.76 V/NHE, respectively, and those of the phenolic substrates are in the range of 0.4–0.9 V/NHE in water, the resulting oxidation reactions are exoergonic or slightly endoergonic. The reactivity of oxidation of substituted phenols by SiW11V, at 50 °C in buffered (pH = 4) water solution, has been found to correlate with the σ parameter of the substituents, yielding an Okamoto–Brown ρ value (i.e., −3.1) consonant with the electronic requirements of a rate-determining electron-transfer route. The negligible value of the solvent kinetic isotope effect (kH/kD = 1.06) obtained for the oxidation of p-MeO-phenol with SiW11V in H2O vs. D2O solution was also in favour of a rate-determining one-electron abstraction from the substrate, followed by fast deprotonation of the intervening radical cation. Additional support to an outer-sphere oxidation with SiW11V was provided by a satisfactory correlation of the reactivity vs. redox potential of the phenols, and by a Marcus analysis of the experimental oxidation data. A sizeable value for the reorganisation energy (λ) was accordingly obtained. The slightly stronger oxidant SiW11Mn resulted to be more reactive than SiW11V by ca. two powers of magnitude. Our scrutiny of the reactive behaviour of the two POMs towards phenols may provide a model of interpretation for the phenoloxidase activity of the laccase enzymes, a class of multicopper oxidases endowed with redox potentials well comparable with those of the two POMs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review on the use of polyoxometalates (POMs) and oxygen, for the delignification of lignocellulosic pulps is presented. Two main processes using POMs for the delignification of pulp have been investigated: an anaerobic process in which the POMs have been used, in aqueous solutions, as stoichiometric reagents for the oxidative degradation of residual lignin, with their re-oxidation by oxygen occurring in a subsequently separate stage; and an aerobic process in which the POMs were designed to perform as catalysts in the oxygen delignification. In the aerobic approach, the lignin oxidation and the reactivation of the POM take place in the same stage of the process. The feasibility of the catalytic system was shown by pilot plant experiments. Following the green chemistry goals, these processes are environmentally friendly approaches and may allow a significant decrease of chlorine-based chemical consumption by the pulp-and-paper industry. The use of the POMs together with laccase for the oxygen delignification of lignocellulosic pulps will also be considered. Final comments regarding the practical application of the POMs are pointed out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]