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International achievement measures such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) have traditionally reported a significant gap between non-migrant and immigrant student groups--a result that is often referred to as the "immigrant performance disadvantage". This article examines first- and second-generation immigrant student achievement results in greater detail across Canada. Overall, Canadian achievement results are atypical in relation to the international community in that immigrant student groups significantly outperform non-migrants in some provincial jurisdictions, and also significantly underperform in other provincial jurisdictions, in relation to reading, mathematics, and scientific literacy. This article examines these diverse results in relation to the available literature and offers a conceptual framework that explains the unique case of Canada. The framework highlights the importance of assessing immigrant student achievement by taking into account the level of individual characteristics, provincial policies, as well as sociocultural and demographic contexts across Canada.

Economic relative deprivation is increasingly recognized as an indication of economic well‐being, also among refugees. This study examines to what extent financial contributions (financial aid and remittances) can compensate for the objective and subjective relative deprivation of Congolese refugees compared to their Rwandan hosts. The analysis is conducted using unique data that have been collected with a UNHCR‐funded research project. We find that refugee households initially experience more objective and subjective relative deprivation than local households, but that this association is largely suppressed by financial contributions they receive. The results show that especially financial aid can compensate for relative deprivation. Furthermore, there is evidence that local households are more often exceptionally deprived than refugee households, when more rigid measurements of objective relative deprivation are used. To promote economic well‐being among the whole population, the needs of both refugees and locals should be considered when distributing financial and development assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transnational social networks of migrants are extensively studied, but little is known about the associations between transnational social networks and individual migration trajectories over the course of migrants' lives. In this paper, we reconstruct the migration trajectories and transnational social networks of African migrants until their arrival in Europe and develop a typology that reflects the diversity of their trajectories. Based on unique retrospective life-history data of the MAFE project, our comparative perspective highlights the diversity of African migrants residing in Europe, the routes that they took before arriving in Europe and the types of transnational networks they had before, during and after migrating. Furthermore, we discuss the socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics of migrants within each typology. Consequently, this paper challenges the singular African migration stereotype and draws attention to the associations between transnational social networks and migration trajectories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The special issue: Migration Trajectories and Transnational Support Within and Beyond Europe brings together a set of papers with fresh empirical analysis from diverse settings documenting the experiences of migrants residing within and beyond the boundaries of Europe. This introductory article has the objective of laying the groundwork for a better understanding of how migration trajectories are shaped and continued in the contexts of transnational (social) networks and migration control. Firstly, we argue that migration journeys are not necessarily linear and unidirectional movements from origin to destination countries, nor are they clearly demarcated events in time and space. On the contrary, we highlight the dynamic and changing nature of migration trajectories. Secondly, we examine different types of relevant actors who provide support for migrants during their journeys. We focus on transnational social networks and transnationally operating institutions and human smugglers, which influence and facilitate or disrupt migration trajectories. Subsequently, based on the premise that migrants' social networks, expectations, motivations and needs change throughout the migration process, we discuss the ways in which transnational support in a context of migration control relates to the lives of migrants on the move. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residential concentration is often referred to as an obstacle to the integration of immigrant minorities. Originating from Wilson's isolation thesis (Wilson, W. J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.), it is assumed that the high ratio of minorities in the neighbourhood decreases chances for social integration, which consequently affects other aspects of integration. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis on the topic by simultaneously examining the links between residential concentration and social, economic and identificational integration outcomes. We perform a quantitative analysis using data from the first wave of The Netherlands Longitudinal Lifecourse Study (NELLS 2009; N = 1,973), which provides a sample of Turkish and Moroccan origin residents in the Netherlands. The results show that a higher ratio of non-Western origin residents is linked to lower likelihood of social relations with natives. While social ties are indeed related to other integration outcomes, living in a more concentrated neighbourhood is not associated with worse integration outcomes in employment, income, and affiliation with Dutch identity. Consequently, we challenge the isolation thesis as a universal model and highlight instead the importance of the quality of relations and the relevance of neighbourhood social context for disadvantaged members of society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article studies the extent to which educational services and schooling outcomes of local children are influenced by the presence of a refugee camp in or near their community. Investigating Congolese refugees in Rwanda and relying on a mixed‐method approach, we examine schooling rates and access to school‐based feeding programmes in communities closer to and further away from three refugee camps. We conduct cohort analyses to compare the schooling outcomes of Rwandans residing at different distances from each of these camps. Our results highlight that children residing closer to the camps have better schooling outcomes and that locals residing closer to the camps have mostly positive views regarding the effects of refugees on local education. These results contribute to the literature on the effects of refugees on host communities and inform policy debates on how refugees need not be a "burden" if a long‐term vision shapes educational investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is widely accepted that people migrate to seek better living opportunities, and migration experiences affect life conditions considerably upon return. Research focused on gendered perspectives has illustrated that men and women experience migration differently and that this difference clearly affects their living conditions upon return. However, few studies have sought to further examine the factors that determine the differences in men and women's perceptions upon return. This paper investigates the case of Ethiopian returnees by exploring three sets of independent variables: (1) the migration experience, (2) the return experience, and (3) the post-return conditions in Ethiopia. For this analysis, we utilize a subsample of returnees based on a household survey conducted among 1,284 households in five regions of Ethiopia in 2011. The subsample consists of 146 returnees and provides valuable information on the diverse experiences of returnees. Both the descriptive and logistic regression analyses demonstrate that: first, women have significantly worse perceptions of their living conditions upon return to Ethiopia than men do; second, migration experiences are the most significant variables that influence perceptions of living conditions upon return. Considering this latter result, we conclude by highlighting the importance of situating return experiences within the wider context of the entire migration cycle and recognizing the long-term effects of migration experiences that persist after return. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The reintegration constituents of displaced populations are understudied, despite increased attention being paid to return and reintegration outcomes. In this paper, we explore how various factors related to the migration cycle, including returnees' displacement experiences and return conditions, are associated with reintegration outcomes. For this aim, we take a multidimensional approach to the measurement of reintegration. In addition to objective reintegration outcomes, measured by food security, we address subjective assessments such as feelings of reintegration. We focus on the unique case of returnees in Burundi and make use of a database consisting of a sample of 189 former internally displaced persons (IDPs) and 194 former refugees, which allows for a comparison of the reintegration of these two groups. The analyses highlight that objective and subjective reintegration do not necessarily align and that displacement experiences and return conditions relate to reintegration outcomes in different ways. Land and livestock ownership upon return are for example positively correlated with feelings of reintegration and subjective wealth, whereas community support is crucial to cope with food security. Moreover, we show considerable variation in reintegration outcomes between refugees and IDPs, with refugees showing more positive outcomes when individual characteristics are controlled for. This result calls for more in‐depth research on the contextual and structural factors that elucidate the variation across groups going beyond individual level explanations. Overall, the findings emphasise the diversity in reintegration outcomes and identify the role of experiences during displacement and return conditions for the reintegration of refugees and IDPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highly skilled migrants are presumably in a better position than less skilled ones to contribute to development in their countries of origin, largely by way of economic and social remittances. In this article, we use unique data on first-generation migrants in the Netherlands to test how economic and social remittances differ by skill level. We find that the highly skilled are more likely to remit, to remit larger amounts and to give advice on education, jobs and health matters. Thus, we identify the highly skilled as having a greater capacity to affect development than have migrants of other skill levels. However, nuances exist with respect to this overall result. We illustrate that the low and medium skilled also show some capacity to affect economic development and that a medium skill level is sufficient to be in a position to transfer significantly more knowledge and skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the links between economic integration and remittances sending behavior through the cases of Afghan, Burundian, Ethiopian, and Moroccan first generation migrants in the Netherlands. The analysis demonstrates that economically-better-integrated migrants, especially those with secure employment, are significantly more likely to remit, remit more, and remit more for investment purposes rather than consumption. Consequently, I challenge the assimilationist perspective on the links between economic integration and homeland engagement, emphasize the significance of dual-engagement, and discuss the implications of this research for integration and development policy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article discusses the right of the refugees to work in the labor market of Rwanda. It talks about the government policies to integrate the refugees in the country. It discusses the impact of the Congolese refugees on the Rwandan communities. It discusses the employment of the refugees and enhancement of their skill sets.

En Ruanda, los refugiados congoleses tienen la misma libertad de circulación y el mismo derecho al trabajo que los ciudadanos ruandeses, pero las experiencias y las actividades económicas de estas dos poblaciones son muy diferentes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]