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Background: Fertility intentions, as a direct driver of fertility behavior, play an important role in the implementation of national fertility policy and population development. This study explored the influencing factors of college teachers' second child fertility intentions in Jinan, China on the basis of TPB. Methodology/Principal findings: Based on the theory of planned behavior, this paper employs basic characteristics analysis, difference analysis, and factor analysis related to the fertility intentions of the participants. Analysis found participants between 31 and 40 years old had the highest second child fertility intentions, and participants with a college-age first child had the lowest second child fertility intentions. Attitude and subjective norms had a positive impact on second child fertility intentions, and policy awareness had a positive impact on attitude, which indirectly affected second child fertility intentions. Subjective norms had the greatest influence on second child fertility intentions, followed by attitude, and policy awareness had the least influence on second child fertility intentions. Significance/Future research: The findings of this paper can enrich the theoretical research on fertility intentions, and also provide more optimal practical references for the formulation and propagation of China's fertility policy as well as the improvement of the division of family roles in China. Future research can further explore the impact of fertility policy on the fertility intentions of other groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Against the grim background of declining intention to have children, the ravages of COVID-19 have pushed China and the world into a more complex social environment. To adapt to the new situation, the Chinese government implemented the three-child policy in 2021. Objective: COVID-19 pandemic indirectly affects the country's internal economic development, employment, fertility plans or intention, and other major issues related to the people's livelihood, while undermining the stable operation of society. This paper explores the question that will COVID-19 pandemic affect Chinese people's intention to have a third child. And What are the relevant factors inside? Method: The data in this paper are from the Survey released by the Population Policy and Development Research Center of Chongqing Technology and Business University (PDPR-CTBU), including 10,323 samples from mainland China. This paper uses the logit regression model and KHB mediated effect model (a binary response model given by Karlson, Holm, and Breen) to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and other factors on Chinese residents' intention to have a third child. Results: The results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic has a negative effect on Chinese residents' intention to have a third child. In-depth research on the mediating effect of KHB shows that COVID-19 pandemic will further inhibit residents' intention to have a third child by affecting their childcare arrangements, increasing their childcare costs, and increasing their exposure to occupational hazards. Contribution: This paper is more pioneering in focusing on the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on the intention to have three children in China. The study provides empirical evidence for understanding the impact of COVID-19 epidemic on fertility intentions, albeit in the context of policy support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On 31 May 2021, the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China proposed the policy that a couple can have three children, and rolled out more supportive measures to further optimize the fertility policies. However, while the Chinese government is further optimizing its fertility policy, the sudden outbreak of COVID-19 is raging around the world, which threatens the implementation of China's fertility optimization policy. Based on this, this paper firstly explores the impact of COVID-19 on women's fertility intentions. Secondly, based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, this paper constructs a structural equation model to quantitatively reveal the specific factors that affect women's fertility intentions under the epidemic, as well as their impact paths, and then puts forward corresponding suggestions for the government to solve the problem of fertility, aiming at delaying population aging and optimizing population structure. The research results show that: (1) COVID-19 lowers the fertility intentions of women of childbearing age. (2) During the pandemic, economic pressure emerged as the biggest factor affecting women's fertility intentions. The decline in income caused by the pandemic has become an important factor in preventing women from having children. (3) The conflict between work and childbearing is still an important factor affecting the fertility intentions of women of childbearing age. The government's provision of perfect childcare services and their strengthening of the protection of women's employment rights and interests will greatly reduce women's anxiety about childbearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As China continues to implement its progressive fertility promotion policy, there has been a drastic decline in the fertility rate. Given that the migrant population constitutes more than a quarter of China's total population, enhancing the willingness of this demographic to have additional children through policy-guided urban public services is pivotal for optimizing China's population development strategy. This study analyzes the influence of urban public services on the reproductive intentions of the migrant population, utilizing data from 110,667 migrant families with one child, drawn from China's Migrant Population Dynamic Monitoring data in 2016 and 2018. The data analysis reveals several key findings: (1) Urban public services, overall, exhibit a notable positive effect on the willingness of the migrant population to have more children, albeit with limitations and a declining trend. (2) Among urban public services, primary basic education significantly impacts the willingness of the migrant population to expand their families. (3) Large cities have created a 'reverse screening' effect on the migrant population, leading to differential access to public services. This scenario caters effectively to the high human capital migrant individuals while reducing accessibility to livelihood public services for the low human capital migrant population. This paper critically evaluates China's progressively adjusted fertility policy from the perspective of the migrant population. It underscores the necessity of establishing a comprehensive fertility support policy system across China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Chinese government has shifted from a one-child policy to a two-child policy (allowing a couple to have up to two children) since 2016 in response to the aging population, the policy results have been unsatisfactory. This is the first paper to systematically investigate the factors influencing residents' intentions to have a second child. The research focuses on the perspective of individual, family, and social characteristics based on the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) from 2017 to 2018. Three machine learning methods are used in conjunction with logistic regression to reveal that the intention of having a second child increases heavily with age, more siblings in the family of origin, and better health. The family income, which is currently the focus of the literature and is statistically significant, is only sixth most important. This study further reveals differences between genders: Women with a lower level of education and religious beliefs prefer to have a second child, whereas for men, non-agricultural hukou and marriage are the position factors. The results of this study also illustrate the importance of future research focusing on the relationship of individuals to their family of origin and districts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is continuing debate on how low China's fertility has reached and whether China has fallen into the "low fertility trap". This paper addresses this debate by revisiting the trends in fertility preferences in the past decades in China based on a meta review. Moreover, the analysis contrasts distinct measurements of fertility preferences to capture different aspects of reproductive decision-making. This papers reviews 152 studies resulting in 137 estimates for the mean of preferred number of children, 104 estimates for the proportions of different numbers of children preferred and 66 estimates for the second-child preferences. We found that after the long-time decline of fertility preferences in the last century, the average family size remained at a low level but started to increase slowly since 2001. This upturn was observed for all three types of measurements of fertility preferences: ideal, desired, and planned family size. The results also indicate a strong two-child preference (more than 50% of respondents) in China, although 30% of people prefer one child and only a small fraction indicating an ideal family size for three or more children. Results on people's preference for a second child were less consistent. We concluded that fertility is unlikely to increase rapidly in China even when the government adopts more relaxed family planning policy. Because the upward trend in fertility preferences was very minimal and the economic constraints will prevent many people to realise their preferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China has entered into a new stage of demographic dynamics whereby population-related challenges are more complicated than ever before. The current one-child policy should be modified. However, the anticipated impacts of such a policy change should not be over-exaggerated. China's demographic challenge requires an integrated coping strategy. Changing the one-child policy may help China to solve some population-related challenges, but cannot reverse the general demographic trends. Furthermore, there are uncertainties about how the public will respond to policy changes. Socioeconomic factors have played a crucial role in determining Chinese couples' fertility behaviors. This momentum will continue and, to some extent, changes to the one-child policy may be a symbolic one. More integrated social policies should be designed and implemented at the same time as a more effective means for China to tackle future development challenges, including population problems. (Contains 1 figure and 7 footnotes.)

High ratios of males to females in China have concerned researchers (Sen 1990, Yi et al. 1993) and the recent increase has alarmed policymakers worldwide. This paper presents an analysis of China's census data that indicates that the "missing girls" phenomenon is causally linked to enforcement of the One Child Policy. Fertility is lower and sex ratios are higher among those under stricter fertility control, and the overall increase in the sex ratio is driven by an increase in the prevalence of sex selection among first and second births. By exploiting regional and temporal variation in fines levied for unauthorized births, I find that higher fine regimes discourage fertility, but are associated with higher ratios of males to females. (Contains 35 footnotes, 10 tables, and 4 figures.)

This paper focuses on the impact of the educational mismatch on workers' fertility intentions and explores the underlying mechanisms. Empirical research based on the China Family Panel Survey (CFPS) data shows that undereducation has a negative effect on the fertility intentions of women aged 18–35, whereas overeducation reports no effect, a finding that remains stable in the robustness test and the IV model. An explanation for this phenomenon is that undereducated female workers have a wage premium and higher expectations of career development, which implies a greater opportunity cost of fertility. The heterogeneity analysis shows that women with low socio-economic status, especially those who are less educated, from low-income households, and who are employed in the private sector, are more affected. It is therefore necessary to reduce the substitution risk in the labor market for this group and to lighten the fertility burden and pressure on women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of house prices on floating populations' fertility intentions in China. Specifically, this is among the first studies to distinguish between urban-to-urban and rural-to-urban migrants. Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), the results indicate that higher house prices discourage urban-to-urban migrants' fertility intentions but do not significantly affect rural-to-urban migrants' fertility intentions. Moreover, among urban-to-urban migrants, homeowners and those with higher levels of education are more adversely affected by higher house prices. Potential mechanisms are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's one-child policy has been an unprecedented policy experiment in human history. Despite its significant achievements, the policy has induced equally significant potential problems. As problems of the one-child policy have been widely noticed and suggestions for adjustments are available, the leadership transition of China in 2012 and 2013 may open the policy window for decisive actions. Change agents have to be aware that the new population policy should not just be based on utilitarian calculation, but also on the recognition of human rights and equity.

One of the major concerns about the one-child policy is its negative impact on the current and future labor force in China. People have talked about the Lewis Turning Point and the end of demographic dividends. Some of these arguments, however, can be misleading. The working-age population (ages 15 to 59) can be treated as the potential labor force supply. It is true that the continuous decline of China's fertility level over the past 30 years has partially resulted in the recent decline of the proportion of the young labor force. Nevertheless, there is no major change in the total size of the labor force. The author suggests that the shortage of the current Chinese labor force cannot be explained simply by the size of the labor force. The demographic dividend and the demographic debt are actually caused by the same demographic event: fertility decline, but the consequences are shown in different time periods. The author concludes that It is only natural that people respond to an aging population through reforming and improving population policies. However, an aging population is a consequence of both the increase in lifespan and falling fertility, and this process will not be radically reversed by merely adjusting fertility policies. What deserves more attention is an adaptation strategy to this population trend and adjusting or restructuring institutional arrangements and integrating public policies. (Contains 1 figure.)

China's low fertility rates are a major concern across all sectors of society. Fertility is a major issue related to economy, society and family development. Based on social norms theory, this paper explores the influence of social norms on individuals' fertility intentions from two perspectives: spatial proximity and social proximity. Using data from the China Family Panel Studies, we found that individual's fertility intentions were influenced by social norms; both neighborhood social norms and group social norms had significant effects. The role of social norms in shaping individual fertility intentions varied by gender, hukou, and life course; specifically, men, rural residents, and married individuals were more significantly influenced by social norms. This study improves the theoretical framework of fertility decision making by arguing that in addition to macro and individual factors, social norms have a very important influence on fertility intentions. Our findings suggest that reshaping social norms regarding fertility is essential to enhance fertility rates in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that one child policy in China will negatively affect entrepreneurship in China 20 to 30 years later. The author first presents evidence that aging has been partially responsible Japan's recent economic stagnation. Then the paper presents evidence that young people are more able entrepreneurs. Moreover, the aging of the workforce can negatively affect entrepreneurship particularly for young people, because young people are promoted more slowly in an aging organization, and therefore accumulated less human capital to be successful entrepreneurs. Lastly, the paper predicts that entrepreneurship will suffer a great deal if China continues its one child policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) targets have been included as part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and indictors are important to monitor progress towards these targets. SRH indicators are recommended for setting norms and measuring progress globally. However, given the diverse political, socioeconomic and cultural contexts in different countries, and lack of global agreement on broad indicators, it is important to select appropriate indicators for specific countries. Based on internationally recommended indicators and data availability in China, this paper selected four indictors to reflect SRH in China and interpreted these indictors by analyzing the underlying factors. Methods: We employed secondary data analysis and key informant interviews. Secondary data were obtained from the China Health Statistical Yearbook (2005–2017), China Statistical Yearbook (2005–2017), and the sub-national estimates of the Global Burden Diseases Study 2016. We interviewed 36 key informants at national and sub-national levels. Results: The four selected SRH indicators are contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR), adolescent birth rate, abortion rate, and availability of school sex education. CPR of married women has remained above 75% over the last three decades, indicating a high level of access to family planning (FP) services; however, unmarried but sexually active women have significant unmet needs for FP services. Although adolescent birth rates in China remain low, the abortion rate, abortion numbers, and the ratio of abortions to births increased from 2014 to 2016 while FP policy was relaxed. This suggests that abortion among unmarried women is a significant contributor to overall figures. Qualitative analysis of the availability of school sex education, reveals an absence of policy due to conservative attitudes of key stakeholders. Conclusion: Since SRH challenges vary significantly between contexts, indicators for measuring progress towards SRH targets should be selected based on country context. The CPR and abortion rate are currently available and important indicators to monitor the most basic part of SRH in China, but require modification to ensure they reflect universal access to quality reproductive healthcare by all reproductive age women, regardless of their marriage status. Policy and indicators on sex education need to be carefully developed to fit the context in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the population aging, on May 31, 2021, the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) proposed the policy that a couple can have three children and rolled out more supportive measures to further optimize fertility policies, which is another major initiative following the universal two-child policy introduced in November 2015. Currently, a series of population policy innovations have aroused great attractions among the public and triggered a hot debating on the Internet. People’s fertility attitude tendency under different related policies can reflect their current fertility intentions. Based on the fact, this paper firstly classifies the sentiment of online comment data on the three-child policy and analyzes people’s sentiment tendency toward the three-child policy from the spatio-temporal perspectives. Secondly, people’s points of view on the three-child policy are summarized by using Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) thematic clustering. The reasons for the change in people’s fertility attitude tendency under different fertility policies are analyzed by comparing the change in people’s fertility attitude tendency with the change in people’s attentions. Finally, a multiple regression equation is constructed to analyze the key factors influencing people’s intention to have three children by using public opinion data and its extension data. The findings demonstrate: (1) people’s fertility attitudes toward the three-child policy are negative and similar among different regions; (2) compared to the two-child policy, the percentage of negative and neutral attitudes toward the three-child policy increases, while the percentage of positive attitudes decreases; (3) the increase in fertility costs, the deterioration of women’s employment environment, and the change in the concept of marriage and childbirth become important reasons for the negative change in people’s fertility attitudes toward different policies. Therefore, the government should take measures to reduce the burden of childbirth and guide the correct concept of marriage and childbirth to improve people’s fertility intentions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes the current state of and the effect of new policies on Chinese families, in terms of marriage, family planning, housing, income, lifestyle, food practices, clothing, health care, education, religion, status of women, and retirement. (SK)

With the growth of the proportion of the ageing population, the problem of population ageing in China has become increasingly prominent because the implementation of family planning policy intensifies the speed of ageing development in China. The restructuring of family structure caused by social reasons, "421" and "422" have become the current family structure mode. With the vigorous development of the economy, the traditional mode and way of the traditional mode and way of providing for the aged cannot meet the spiritual and life needs of the elderly. Most of the institutions only develop the projects to provide for the aged, but not combined with the traditional way of providing for the aged in China. Based on the two-way needs of the young and the elderly, this paper combines the traditional culture with China's current national conditions and constructs the most suitable pension mode for China's traditional pension mode and Chinese people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the Chinese General Social Survey 2006 and 2008 data, this paper assesses the influence of the family planning policy on the qualitative development of children using education attainment and individual income of only children versus children with siblings as parameters. Our results show the following: (1) only children are better-educated than their counterparts with siblings; (2) only children earn higher income in comparison to their counterparts with siblings; (3) the income and education gaps between girls with and without siblings are greater than those between boys; (4) the education gaps between only children and children with siblings are greater for those born in the 1970s, but the income difference between only children and children with siblings is only significant for those born in the 1980s; and (5) the income and education gaps between only children and children with siblings are higher in urban regions. Results indicate that families with only one child invest more resources in children's quality under the family planning policy, which is consistent with the "quantity-quality trade-off" theory proposed by Gary Becker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The paper evaluates the effects of being an only child in a family on psychological health, leveraging data on the one‐child policy in China. We use an instrumental variable approach to address the potential unmeasured confounding between the fertility decision and psychological health, where the instrumental variable is an index of the intensity of the implementation of the policy. We establish an analytical link between the local instrumental variable approach and principal stratification to accommodate the continuous instrumental variable. Within the principal stratification framework, we postulate a Bayesian hierarchical model to infer various causal estimands of policy interest while adjusting for the clustering data structure. We apply the method to the data from the China Family Panel Studies and find small but statistically significant negative effects of being an only child on self‐reported psychological health for some subpopulations. Our analysis reveals treatment effect heterogeneity with respect to both observed and unobserved characteristics. In particular, urban males suffer the most from being only children, and the negative effect has larger magnitude if the families were more resistant to the one‐child policy. We also conduct a sensitivity analysis to assess the key instrumental variable assumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study of Gao Village has two aims: to provide an update on Gao Village since 1997, when Gao Village (Gao 1999, 2014) leaves off, and to ponder the future direction of rural China. The article begins with an update on the development of Gao Village from the late 1990s up to 2015, dealing with several major thematic topics such as demography, family and marriage, living standards, education and health care. Using empirical evidence gathered during several years of fieldwork as background, the paper then moves on to discuss the future direction of rural China. This second part covers the current intellectual and policy debate on two crucial issues: land ownership and urbanization. The paper concludes that the Chinese state is still undecided on a grand narrative: whether to travel further in the direction of full-scale capitalism or whether to retain some kind of socialist collectivism. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Thanks to successful economic growth, social development, and strict implementation of family planning policies, the demographic transition in China has been accomplished at a much earlier stage of development than in other countries. I call this outcome "aging before affluence." As a result of this demographic transition, China has already passed through its Lewis turning point, and its demographic dividend from the decline in the population dependence ratio is about to end. I identify a potential nexus between "aging before affluence" and the "middle-income trap." China is losing comparative advantage in labor-intensive industries, but China is not ready to gain comparative advantage in technology-intensive and capital-intensive industries. For China to avoid the middle-income trap, it must (1) transform economic growth to a consumptiondriven pattern; (2) shift the labor-intensive industries to the central and western regions; and (3) speed up technological catching up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper exploits China's one‐child policy (OCP) to study the relationship between fertility and educational attainment of the mothers of China's "sibling‐less generation." I take two difference‐in‐differences approaches to estimate the OCP's effect on women's education: one compares gender difference among the ethnic majority group and the other compares ethnicity differences between ethnic majority women and ethnic minority women. I also explore the heterogeneity of the policy's effects by parent's status at the Communist Party. I find that the OCP has a positive and significant effect on women's education and explains about half of the increase in educational attainment for women born between 1960 and 1980. Their increased educational attainment associates with delayed entry into first marriage, delayed entry to parenthood and increased labor supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to isolate the actual effect of the second child on the anthropometric outcomes and nutrition intake of the first child in rural China, using an exogenous increase in child quantity due to the relaxation of the One-Child Policy (OCP). We utilize both temporal and geographic variation in the OCP, as families are less likely to have the second child if the OCP in their community is strictly enforced after the birth of their first child. Based on a sample of children aged 6–17 from the 1991–2009 China Health and Nutrition Survey, we find that an increase in the number of children significantly decreases the weight and height of first-born girls, but not first-born boys. The worse anthropometric outcomes could be due to the change in the dietary pattern—compared with the only children, first-born girls in two-child families tend to intake less high-fat and high-protein food (e. g. meats, poultry, and milk). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Female sex workers (FSW) are particularly vulnerable to unintended pregnancy. Research examining the experience of unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex among Chinese FSW, however, is limited. This study aimed to examine the prevalence and correlates of unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex among FSW in China. Methods: In 2021, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 1257 FSW in five cities from Guangdong provinces in South China. Data were collected on social-demographic characteristics, sexual behaviors, experience of unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex and its pregnancy outcome, as well as experience of abortion in lifetime. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was employed to identify factors associated with unintended pregnancy. Results: Among the 1257 FSW, 19.3% reported having at least one unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex. Of those, 96.7% chose to terminate the pregnancy through induced abortion, and 40.5% reported undergoing multiple induced abortions in their lifetime. Multivariable logistic regression indicated that FSW working in current location over one year (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR): 2.82, 95% CI 1.71–4.64) and having more than seven clients in the past week (aOR: 4.53, 95% CI 2.74–7.51) were more likely to have had unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex. Working in high tier (aOR: 0.21, 95% CI 0.14–0.30) and consistent condom use with clients in the past month (aOR: 0.16, 95% CI 0.10–0.23) were associated with a lower proportion of FSW having ever had unintended pregnancy. Conclusions: Unintended pregnancy are prevalent among FSW in South China. Interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence of unintended pregnancy and enhancing post-abortion care could be necessary among Chinese FSW. Plain English summary: Female sex workers (FSW) are particularly vulnerable to unintended pregnancies. Research on the experience of unintended pregnancy resulting from commercial sex among Chinese FSW is, however, limited. To address this knowledge gap, we investigated the prevalence and correlates of unintended pregnancies due to commercial sex among FSW in China. We conducted a cross-sectional study among 1257 FSW in five cities across Guangdong Province in South China in 2021. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with unintended pregnancy. Among 1257 FSW, 19.3% reported having experienced at least one unintended pregnancy due to commercial sex. The factors significantly associated with unintended pregnancy in the multivariate analysis included participants working in high tier, working in current location over one year, using condom with clients inconsistently in the past month, and having more clients in the past week. The findings from this study could provide valuable insights for the development of policies aimed at reducing unintended pregnancies, improving abortion care, and enhancing family planning programs targeted at FSW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose – During the early 1970s, faced with the serious demographic situation, China began to fully implement the policy of family planning in urban and rural regions. Nowadays, the problems of pension and medical care for aged parents confronted by the first generation of the one-child family have begun to gradually appear. Meanwhile, China's population and the family planning are also faced with some problems that are difficult to solve, including unbalanced fertility rate of urban and rural population, the gender imbalance, the difficulty of the risk diversification in a one-child family, as well as the profound contradiction between the stability of the family planning policy and the drive of administrative measures. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the integrated-scheduled life security system of the one-child family in urban and rural areas, in order to overcome the problems and to promote the transformation of the family planning policy. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the life security system for China's one-child families. Design/methodology/approach – The life security system for the one-child family proposed by this paper consists of three issues: the basic security based on the level of social security, the additional security of the policy insurance and the supplementary security of the commercial insurance. The paper begins with the history of the family planning policy in the first section and then go through some relevant articles regarding complementary measures such as maternity insurance, rural endowment insurance that only focused on one aspect of issues associated with the family planning. In section three, four typical problems are listed for the purpose of following discussion of corresponding solutions which are full of deficiency in section four. In part five, the integrated planning of the life security system for Chinese one-child family is elaborated with risk and fund management. In the last part, we conclude that the family planning policy maintains stable, whereas measures to be taken are adjusted along with changeable new problems. Findings – The policy insurance plays an increasingly important role in dealing with the life security of older people in one-child families. It may be better to promote the kind of insurance. Originality/value – The paper comprehensively discusses the life security system for Chinese families in compliance with the family planning policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zhanli Dong Ethnic Minority Village (Zhanli village) is well known as the First Village of Family Planning in China. In this paper, the Zhanli village's population is forecasted by GM(1, 1) model with high accuracy above 98%. The forecasting values show that the population of Zhanli village is likely to increase in the following years due to some external factors' intervention. The Zhanli village's population controlling experience enlightens us to solve the population problem all over the world especially in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on a constructed theoretical model, this paper studies the operation of family planning policy in rural China during the post agricultural tax era. Within the current fiscal system, this paper finds fines for over births becomes rural government’s main fiscal revenue, and consequently rural government encourages people to give more births to increase its revenue. Therefore, the population control policy is losing its effectiveness. Through the model, the bargaining power among the fiscal system, rural residents, and rural government is the key to the birth control problem. When the fines for over birth become rural government’s main revenue source, the growth in number of rural births also increases rural government’s total utility, producing the co-existence of high-fines and high-births. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China launched an unprecedented program to control its population in 1971. Experts have dismissed the official estimate of 400 million births averted by this program as greatly exaggerated yet neglect to provide their own estimates. Counterfactual projections based on fertility declines in other countries suggest that China's program-averted population numbered 360-520 million as of 2015. The low end of this range is based on Vietnam-China's best national comparator, with a two-child program of its own-and the high end is based on a 16-country comparator selected, ironically, by critics of the official estimate. The latter comparator further implies that China's one-child program itself averted a population of 400 million by 2015, three-quarters of the total averted population. All such estimates are projected to double by 2060, due mostly to counterfactual population momentum. These and other findings presented herein affirm the astonishing impact of China's draconian policy choices and challenge the current consensus that rapid socioeconomic progress drove China's fertility well below two children per family. International comparisons of fertility and income suggest instead that China's very low fertility arrived two or three decades too soon. If China had not harshly enforced a norm of 1.5-children during the last quarter century, most mothers would have had two children, one-half birth higher than observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quantity-quality trade-off is one important motivation for the family planning policies in many developing countries. In this paper, we examine the effect of number of siblings on children's health and education in China. We find evidence of quantity-quality trade-off in children's health but not in children's education. Our study has three contributions. First, we focus not only on children's education but also on children's health, which has received rather little attention in the literature. Secondly, we use a new source of exogenous variation in fertility - variations of the strictness of the One-Child policy across localities in China - to construct instrumental variable's (IV's). Finally, we empirically explore the underlying mechanism of the quantity-quality trade-off, and find supporting evidence for the resource dilution hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China initiated its family planning policy in 1962 and its one-child policy in 1980, and it allowed all couples to have two children as of 1 January 2016. This paper systematically examines the labor market consequences of China's family planning policies. First, we briefly review the historical evolution of China's family planning policies and the existing literature. Second, we investigate the effects of these policies on the labor market, focusing on the size and quality of the working-age population and its age and gender composition. We give special attention to regional differences in the demographic structure resulting from the interaction of the family planning policies and internal migration. Finally, we discuss ongoing and prospective policy changes and their potential consequences. Although urban areas and coastal provinces have implemented stricter family planning policies, our analysis shows that because of internal migration, the aging problem is more severe in rural areas and in inland provinces. Our simulation results further indicate that the new two-child policy might fall short of pulling China out of its aging situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, an emerging discourse on various social media platforms has drawn attention to the enduring, yet unspoken, distress experienced by a considerable number of Chinese women who have utilized intrauterine devices (IUDs) for extended durations. Using corpus linguistics and thematic analysis, this article seeks to explore the use of metaphors in discussions about IUDs on Weibo and how the public makes sense of roles of spouses in the decision of using IUDs. The findings reveal three distinct metaphors about IUDs within multi-layered family and social relationships: a time bomb, a blood-stained wedding ring, and a lethal weapon. Furthermore, three metaphorical representations of the spousal roles in relation to the use of IUDs are identified: participants versus observers regarding contraception, perpetrators versus victims within societal frameworks, and the nurturing cornerstone of the family versus instrumental means for procreation. These metaphors, deeply rooted in war metaphors, not only reflect the oppressive forces imposed on women by state power, patriarchal society, and traditional beliefs but also function as a form of resistance against such forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review introduces the history of development, organizational structure, funding resources, data collection, and quality control of the Chinese Rheumatism Data Center (CRDC) and summarizes the collection of data. In 2009, Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH), together with several rheumatism centers, established the Chinese Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Treatment and Research Group (CSTAR) to collect data on Chinese patients for the study of SLE disease characteristics. In 2011, CSTAR was extended with the formation of the CRDC at PUMCH with direction from the National Health and Family Planning Commission of the PRC. The CRDC currently includes 300 registration sites and 50 regional sites that have successively begun to collect data on 12 rheumatic diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis, Takayasu arteritis, IgG4-related diseases, ANCA-associated vasculitis, gout, polyarteritis nodosa, unclassified systemic vasculitis, and Behcet disease. To date, 17,224 patients have been enrolled in the CRDC. Based on the SLE patients registered in the CRDC, papers investigating basic demographic characteristics and first symptom in Chinese SLE patients, risk factors of pulmonary hypertension, correlations between autoantibodies and clinical manifestations, and factors related to fetal loss have been published. The CRDC is a national registry that provides real-life data to improve clinical decision-making. At the same time, without additional work for the clinician, the CRDC is a powerful research database. The CRDC database provides sufficient information for Chinese clinical studies on rheumatology. Moreover, a mobile device application ensures convenient and efficient data collection without compromising data quality, thereby providing strong evidence-based data for the diagnosis and treatment of Chinese rheumatic patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zaolian (literally means “early love,” “zao” for “early”, “lian” for “love”) refers to courtship or dating among young people in elementary and secondary school systems. In today’s China, it is regarded as a serious social problem related to minors/adolescents. To safeguard their moral, hygiene and promising future, it is believed that zaolian should be prevented and controlled by school regulations, family pressures, and even state laws. This paper attempts to provide a historical explanation to origins of this specific juvenile delinquency in China’s long twentieth century. Firstly, it offers a critical discussion on current scholarships, which dismiss zaolian either as a Freudian sexual repression by the Chinese Communist regime since 1949 or as a product of this regime’s social control efforts in the early 1980s. Unconvinced by these explanations, it then presents a new approach to examine “moral, ideological and structural” origins of zaolian. The moral and ideological origins include traditional Confucian patriarchy and its sexual norms, a new regime of western medical sciences, and the sexual repressive regime of the Chinese Communist Party, and all of them could be traced at least in the early 20th century. Lastly, it turns to the more crucial structural origins, or the three institutional-buildings responding to globally circulating discourses since the early 20th century: modern marriage against zaohun (early marriage), family planning policy against zaoyu (early childbirth) and modern educational system. Zaolian as a social problem was fledged in the 1980s when the three institutions had been well-established in China. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

China's official position towards Taiwan has always been "peaceful unification without giving up the possibility of military intervention." Under this metanarrative, numerous studies of cross-border social and economic issues have been conducted. While maintaining special historical and geo-political bonds with China. Taiwan has its own political system and critical views towards China's claim and position. This paper aims to determine the attitude of younger generation Taiwanese and Chinese towards mainland China's domestic polityin respect of family planning. We asked the respondents to sample surveys for their opinions towards China's birth control policy, also known as the "One-child Policy" and its impact on China. The survey results indicate that while many of the respondents agree that this policy helped China solved some serious challenges caused by a fast growing population; social issues like gender discrimination, forced abortions, and so on were not dealt with, and this is overwhelmingly perceived by the respondents from both Taiwan and China. Furthermore, we conducted T-test between several variables and found that "gender did not affect their opinions towards the policy", but their "origin of place" did play a role in influencing their opinions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares levels and trends of population growth rates, age and sex composition, mortality, and fertility including family planning practices in the world's two most populous countries, China and India. Both countries are undergoing demographic transition but China is nearer than India to achieving a stationary population. Fertility in China has declined below replacement level while in India it is nearly one and a half children per woman above replacement level. Both countries have achieved large reductions in mortality but life expectancy at birth in China is currently about 10 years longer than in India. Both countries have young populations but China will precede India in the aging of population structure during the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines patterns of fertility and family planning in China, particularly by an analysis of recently available provincial data for the period around 1981. Fertility rates in the more urban and developed parts of China are very low, approximating those of countries with the lowest fertility rates in the world. Family planning in these areas is also very common and widespread. The more rural and interior areas of China, however, are characterized by much higher fertility rates and by much lower family planning rates. Family planning variables are very good predictors of provincial fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper examines the level and trend of fertility in Huaibei Plain, Anhui province, China, since 1950 and considers some determinants of fertility decline. The data used are from the 1/1000 survey of China which was conducted by the Family Planning Commission in 1982.Fertility decline among younger women (aged under 30) is largely due to later age at marriage, the marriage pattern of Huaibei Plain having changed from early and universal marriage to later and universal marriage. Current use of contraception suggests that the family planning programme, in particular the one-child policy (1979), has been the major determinant in fertility decline. The greatest decline in marital fertility occurred among women aged 35+ and is primarily due to contraceptive practice and induced abortion. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

China has low birth rates at higher parities and intensive grandparental childcare. Despite this, there has been little empirical research into the role of intergenerational support in the transition to second birth. This study examines whether grandparental childcare increases the likelihood and speed of a transition to second birth in the context of relaxations in Chinese family planning policy and whether this differs for working and non-working mothers. Using data from the China Family Panel Studies (2010–2016), the association between grandparental childcare, mother's working status and second childbirth are explored using split-population survival models to distinguish between the impact on the timing of fertility and ultimate parity progression. The odds of having a second child are four times higher for those who use grandparental childcare than those that don't. Amongst those who have a second child, grandparental childcare leads to 30% lower odds of transition to second birth than those without grandparental care, each month. Grandparental childcare is also associated with maternal employment, which is itself associated with a sharp decrease in the transition to second birth. At the micro-level, grandparental childcare helps mothers continue working, which in turn defers a second birth. The results emphasise the importance of work-life balance strategies, such as grandparental care, in enabling women of childbearing age to realize their fertility intentions in combination with work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ongoing population aging and few children are major challenges for human sustainable development in the 21st century. While the external environment is a crucial factor determining people's behaviour, the potential effects of subjective environmental quality on an individual's fertility decision‐making remain poorly understood. Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey, this research has examined the relationship between environmental quality perception and fertility intention in China. Results reveal that an increase in environmental quality perception can significantly promote people's fertility intention. Our study proposes and verifies two pathways through which environmental quality perception affects fertility intention, namely, well‐being and future expectation. This facilitating effect is greater for people with poor socio‐economic conditions. The findings indicate that policymakers should coordinate environmental protection and population policies to promote sustainable development and design various tools targeted based on people's socio‐economic background. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a key moment during the world's attempt to come to terms with enormously expanding populations. China was an extreme case, both in the magnitude of its population explosion and in its government's control of reproduction through the One-Child Policy (OCP). The U.S. had been a founder and the main financial supporter of The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). Starting in 1998, UNFPA's program in China attempted to move the OCP away from two decades of coercive family planning and toward acceptance of the women's rights–centered global consensus that emerged from the 1994 Cairo Conference on Population and Development. In 2001, a conservative U.S. organization, the Population Research Institute, claimed to have gathered evidence of UNFPA's involvement in Chinese coercion. Although several investigations, including one sent by President George W. Bush himself, refuted this evidence, and UNFPA had used no U.S. funds in China, conservative political power was sufficient to cause President George W. Bush to eliminate all U.S. funding for UNFPA's activities everywhere in the world. Ironically, this period was exactly when the UNFPA project had shown that coercion was unnecessary. China eventually followed the UNFPA's lead, liberalizing and eventually ending the OCP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China’s one-child policy, introduced in the late 1970s, has been in effect for over three decades. This article reviews China’s low fertility rate and the implementation of this stringent birth control policy in the context of low fertility. First, China’s fertility intention, behavior, and low fertility level trend are presented. Then, the official response to the low fertility level and the consequent misguided policy-making are investigated. Next, various obstacles to the abolishment of the strict birth control policy are discussed, including national leaders’ authority, related family planning regulations and laws, the inertia of this basic state policy under the auspices of the common good, the displacement of the family planning systems, and the necessity for social maintenance fees to keep grassroots governments in operation. After discussing the recent reform of this birth control policy in 2013 and the subsequent results, the incentives for a universal two-child policy are elucidated. These include the official acknowledgment of low fertility, the effect of birth control policy on fertility decline, the reactions of the general public, the attitudes of grassroots family planning cadres, the appeal from scholars, international experiences, the merging of population and family planning commissions, and national leaders’ attitudes. The paper concludes with an analysis of the cost of this birth control policy over the past decades. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Public health service is an important guarantee by the government to safeguard the health rights of rural migrant women. This not only concerns the health status of rural migrant women and their willingness to stay in the urban area but can also affect their fertility intention. This study systematically examined the impact of public health services on the fertility intentions of rural migrant women as well as the mechanisms, underlying these intentions based on the data from the 2018 China Migration Dynamics Monitoring Survey. Urban public health services, including health records management and health education, could effectively enhance the fertility intentions of rural migrant women. Furthermore, their health status and willingness to stay in urban areas were important mechanisms, by which, the public health services could influence the fertility intentions of rural migrant women. Additionally, urban public health services have a better effect on improving the fertility desire of rural migrant women who have no pregnancy experience, a low income level, and a short residence time in the inflow area. This study contributed to the examination and clarification of the policy effects of public health services on the fertility intentions of rural migrant women. Additionally, it also provided important evidence to support the government policies related to the optimization of the public health service system, improvement of the health status, citizenship, and fertility intentions of the rural migrant women, as well as the development of the uniform public health services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2013, the Chinese government implemented a two-child policy to increase the country's fertility rate. However, the persistently low rates necessitated other measures to boost fertility. This study empirically investigated the association between intergenerational support and second-child fertility intention in the Chinese sandwich generation and demonstrated the mediating role of parental burnout and burnout in caring for grandparents. Survey data collected at Time 1, Time 2, and Time 3 included 2939 participants from different regions of China. Before analyzing the data, coarsened exact matching and propensity score matching was conducted to reduce sampling bias. Regression analysis results indicated that intergenerational support has a significant total positive effect on second-child fertility intention. Furthermore, mediation path analysis revealed that parental burnout and burnout in caring for grandparents play significant but opposite directional mediating roles in the association between intergenerational support and second-child fertility intention. Sensitivity analysis using different calipers yielded similar results. These results indicated that second-child fertility intention can be increased among the Chinese sandwich generation with intergenerational support, by mitigating parental burnout. However, intergenerational support did not alleviate burnout in caring for grandparents in the sandwich generation; therefore, formal older adult care policies are required to help the sandwich generation experience lower burnout, while receiving intergenerational support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pharmacotherapy is one of the primary treatments for patients with Assisted reproductive technology (ART). Despite the publication of various research on ART treatment, there is no clear conclusion regarding the choice of drug treatment in China. Our research intends to examine the trend of widely prescribed medications for ART patients in China. For instance, the study examines the logic of drug indications, usage, and dose in patient prescriptions. Methods: We did a cross-sectional study of the data from the hospital prescription analysis cooperation project supervised by the China Medical Association. The information is extracted from the prescriptions of reproductive assistance outpatients from January 2016 to December 2020. We used the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classification to quantify the frequency of drug use and the categories of drugs. We manually extract the information of patients who require ART treatment, divide the patients into various age groups and geographies, followed by study the indications, utilization, and rationale of the most important therapeutic medications. Results: Among the 225225 patients included in this study, Guangzhou (47.83%), Shanghai (19.84%), and Zhengzhou (9.36%) were the top three cities. In the past 5 years, the average age was 32.99, and 60.38% of women were between the age of 25 and 34. The main therapeutic medicines taken by each patient, primarily hormone therapies, were tallied. Eleven types of primary therapeutic medicines were employed. Different progesterone preparations (47472, 21.08%), chorionic gonadotrophin gondotrophin for injection (38932, 17.29%), dydrogesterone tables (33591, 14.91%), and triptorelin for injection (26959, 11.97%) rounded out the top five. According to the data on outpatient medications in major cities in China, the variety and proportion of injections are the highest, including the most frequent types of ovulation induction and urotropia, as well as triptorelin and progesterone. Even though the total dosage of urotropin was the highest in 5 years, it showed a declining trend. The dosages of progesterone and didroxyprogesterone increased, with progesterone showing the most rapid increase. The top five most expensive prescription medications are triptorelin, urotropin, progesterone, didroxyprogesterone, and leuprorelin, in that order. Goserelin, leuprorelin, triptorelin, growth hormone, and didroxyprogesterone are among the top five most expensive medications per capita. Conclusion: The average age of patients has not increased considerably over the past 5 years. However, the opportunity cost of childbirth for women has increased, which has significantly enhanced their willingness for childbearing intentions. The medication selection is reasonable overall. In this study, the recommended dosages of first-line medicines (urotropin and chorionic gonadotropin) are likewise high. In contrast, the dosage of oral first-line treatment for ovarian stimulation in unexplained infertility is modest, and the dosage of progesterone is steadily increasing. In addition, the price of certain medicines is high, which will increase the patients' financial burden. Future research will focus on enhancing the degree of rational drug use among outpatients and realizing the economical, safe, and effective use of pharmaceuticals to lessen the economic burden of patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research uses CGSS, a family survey data, to study the impact of the second phase of the selective two-child policy (STCP II) on residents' fertility intentions in China. It finds that the policy does improve residents' two-child fertility intentions, which is more significant in the younger groups. The research results suggest that relaxing the family planning policies does increase the residents' willingness to have more children in the short term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How trade liberalization affects a country's fertility has been verified by some studies, but little is known about how export trade liberalization impacts individual fertility intention. Using China Health and Nutrition Survey data from 1997 to 2011 and regression analysis, this study finds that a decline in the average external tariff significantly improves the fertility intentions of married women. This conclusion remains robust after overcoming endogeneity problems using an alternative external proxy variable, adopting different average tariff calculation methods, adding other control variables, and considering the son preference. The mechanism test shows that export trade liberalization can affect married women's fertility intentions by affecting family income; moreover, the income effect dominates the substitution and intra‐marital income gap effects. This study provides a new perspective for understanding changes in fertility intention in developing countries. This perspective can promote academic research progress in this field and be of great significance in formulating effective policies to improve fertility intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fertility awareness-based methods (FAMs), a kind of natural family planning method, are often used to guide the pregnancy and contraception. FAMs are welcome by some people of childbearing age because of its pure natural, no side effect and no involvement with the moral and ethical problem. The failure rate of FAMs is about 1%-5%. FAMs are mainly applied in those pre-marital people and newly married couples in China. However, they don't know much about FAMs, even those obstetrics and gynecology doctors, which leads to the improper use of FAMs and the high contraceptive failure rate. The mechanism, methods, and research progress of FAMs were reviewed in this paper, so as to promote the use of FAMs, to lower the unwanted pregnancy and to develop the reproductive health in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]