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Children in Africa starve to death or fail to thrive and achieve their full potential as a result of social problems that have their roots in both national and international issues. In many African countries, parents are unable to feed their children because farmers no longer grow enough food and prefer to cultivate cash crops that are exported to foreign countries to service debts to rich industrial nations. This paper recommends a multilevel and integrated approach to defining and solving the problem of child survival and child development in Africa. The following issues are explored: (1) the development of an agenda for dealing with the fundamental issue of Africa's underdevelopment that is in the best interest of Africans and their children; (2) the promotion of child welfare through the empowerment of families and communities; (3) the use of the African concepts of childhood and socialization, and the strong emotions and expectations that Africans have for their children, as the bases for any campaigns or programs for promoting child welfare and development; (4) the empowerment of Africans by means of technical information; and (5) the creation of public awareness in Africa, as a result of which the general public, communities that are at risk, and various other national and international groups will become informed about the issues and problems of child survival and child development in Africa. (SM)

This report offers numerous cross-sectoral explorations in the context of health and human resources analyses in Africa. Intended as a resource document for funding agencies, program managers, and policy makers in Africa, the study aims to spark interest in using basic education to foster behavior conducive to broad-based, sustainable economic development. The report presents findings and analysis of research carried out in missions to Botswana, The Gambia, and Senegal from December 1992 to October 1993. The paper evaluates and documents lessons learned from programs designed to integrate health, population/family planning, environmental issues, privatization, and democracy education into basic education curricula in African nations. The first section of the report discusses recent findings about the way students learn and how this research affects curriculum development, curriculum and instruction, and curriculum and evaluation. In the second section three case studies outline the curriculum development process in Botswana, The Gambia, and Senegal. The third section of the report presents recommendations and observations. An annotated bibliography of programs and materials is included in the appendix. (EH)

This paper reviews the scholarly literature concerned, directly or indirectly, with the implementation of educational policies in Sub-Saharan Africa. The first part considers the reasons both for the past neglect of implementation issues and for the current interest in the subject. It also introduces some conceptual issues relevant to the analysis of implementation questions, drawing heavily on the literature that focuses on policy processes in Western countries. The second part offers general observations concerning the literature on the implementation of educational policies in Africa, and characterizes this literature with respect to the policies considered, the countries studied, and other variables. The third part outlines the major conceptual frameworks that have been developed for the analysis of implementation issues. It then considers the matter of causation as this is addressed, explicitly or implicitly, in the literature on educational policy implementation in Africa. Six major sets of variables are identified, and the arguments that have been advanced with respect to the explanatory significance of each set are summarized. The paper concludes with some comments on the deficiencies of literature reviewed and with a call for research that is better informed by the often more sophisticated work of those who have studied implementation issues in other policy domains and in other parts of the world. The appendices follow the text. The first lists the journals surveyed systematically for purposes of this paper, and the second is a bibliography. (Author)

This paper reviews a number of educational policy statements in East African countries, on issues ranging from combining education with production at the primary level to the financing of higher education. An assessment is made as to how successful the policies have been in achieving their original intention. The paper's conclusion is that policy outcomes fall far short of matching expectations, mainly because of insufficient, or the absence of, implementation. The reason most educational policies are not implemented is that they are vaguely stated and the financing implications are not always worked out. Another reason for failure is that the content of a policy is based on an empirically unsustained theoretical relationship between instruments and outcomes. The paper makes a plea for the formulation of more concrete, feasible and implementable policies based on documented cause-effect relationships. (Author/DB)

This publication contains a set of five case studies and two analytical overview chapters that lay the foundation for a deeper understanding of the process of educational policy formation in Africa. Reflecting developments until late 1992, the cases include Botswana, Tanzania, Uganda, Mali, and Senegal. The articles describe and analyze current approaches to educational policy formation. Specifically, the case studies examine the policy-making process, the policy product, and the policy environment. Each of the cases contains a summary table of key policy events and a detailed bibliography of the major educational policy documents. Most cases provide a more detailed description of policy making in recent years, including an analysis of the role of major donors, the influences of political and economic events at the national level, and the extent that external factors have driven internal policy making. The contents are: (1) "Introduction and Overview" (David R. Evans); (2) "Case Summaries" (Jeanne Moulton); (3) "Education Policy Formation in Anglophone Africa: The Work of Education Commissions" (Ash Hartwell); (4) "Education Policy Formation in Botswana: The Transformation of Traditional Politics" (Jakes Swartland and Ash Hartwell); (5) "Education Policy in Tanzania: Self-Reliance and Dependence" (Joel Samoff); (6) "Education Policy Formation in Uganda: Continuity Amid Change" (David R. Evans and W. Senteza Kajubi); (7) "Education Policy Formation in Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa" (Francois Orivel and Christopher Shaw); (8) "Education Policy Formation in Mali: As a Response to Political Crisis" (Mamadou Bagayoko and Jeff Hittenberger); and (9) "Education Policy Formation in Senegal: Evolutionary Not Revolutionary" (William M. Rideout, Jr. and Mamadou Bagayoko). References accompany each chapter. (LMI)

Apprenticeship is the main avenue to self-employment in micro-enterprises and thus a cornerstone of informal sector development in West Africa. Survey results for Ibadan, Lome, Dakar, Niamey, and other cities demonstrate that apprenticeship as practiced by informal sector artisans is often very similar from one country to the next. Dropout rates are estimated at 20-25%. Micro-enterprises involved in apprenticeable trades produce, on average, one "graduate" per year. Apprenticeship is not only for young men. Females apprentice in female-dominated trades. Survey data confirm that apprentices tend to be better educated than their masters. A majority select their trade because it was something they had always wanted to do. Masters are often selected because they are relatives or family acquaintances. Costs of apprenticeship vary considerably among and within trades and from one country to another depending on demand and whether the master is a relative. Apprenticeship usually takes 3 or 4 years, and working hours are long. Apprentices learn primarily by watching their master and being "corrected" when they err. Usually, masters follow a training plan. Apprentices learn technical skills as well as management and organization skills. Three of four apprentices state they want to create their own establishment; many seek wage employment at first. Intervention options should include measures aimed at apprentices or at masters. (Appendixes include 10 statistical tables.) (YLB)

In 1988, the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) in collaboration with the International Labour Organization established a pilot project to address the issue of underrepresentation of women in technical education and training. The Women in Technical Education and Training Project (WITED) was based on six key strategic elements necessary to increase and maintain women's participation. The elements were as follows: (1) contact and cooperation with an international and regional network of institutions; (2) institutional involvement in project design and implementation; (3) pilot action research phase; (4) training and awareness raising for the project staff; (5) policy seminar; and (6) information dissemination. Research explored women's participation in technical training and employment and the main obstacles. Findings indicated that the number of women enrolling in polytechnics had increased gradually, but women were only 24 percent of the students. The average participation rate in technical programs was 12 percent. Fifteen percent of polytechnic teachers were women. Women represented 4 percent of all technical workers. Barriers were grouped under three main headings: those found in education and training systems and policies, in employment, and in society. Changes were recommended in four main target areas: national level, primary and secondary school systems, technical and vocational training systems, and formal sector employment. (Appendixes include a 16-item bibliography and 6 tables.) (YLB)

A detailed description is presented of the types, functions, performance levels, governance, administration, and funding of public examinations in 14 Sub-Saharan African countries with different educational traditions, based on English, French, or other backgrounds. The countries are: (1) Kenya; (2) Lesotho; (3) Mauritius; (4) Swaziland; (5) Uganda; (6) Zambia; (7) Chad; (8) Guinea; (9) Madagascar; (10) Mauritania; (11) Rwanda; (12) Togo; (13) Cape Verde; and (14) Ethiopia. In virtually all of these countries, public examinations are offered at the end of primary (elementary) school, lower-secondary school, and upper-secondary school. Procedures for funding, constructing, administering, and scoring the examinations are discussed. Issues discussed include passing rates, the effects of examinations on teaching and grade repetition, the roles of assessment, implications of national policies, and other current international issues in education. Guidelines are offered for improving the quality of examinations and their uses. This synthesis report draws on a series of studies supported by the World Bank. Findings from the 14 studies confirm that public examinations may help raise academic standards, but can also cause many problems in an educational system. Nine tables present data from the studies. A 105-item list of references and three appendices with supplemental information are included. (SLD)

Country profiles compiled through a survey of distance education in Africa form the contents of this document. International organizations and 35 countries were surveyed: Algeria; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Congo (Brazzaville); Djibouti; Ethiopia; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Malawi; Mali; Mauritius; Mozambique; Namibia; Nigeria; Rwanda; Somalia; Sudan; Swaziland; Tanzania; Togo; Tunisia; Uganda; Zaire; Zambia; and Zimbabwe. Some or all of the following information is presented for each country: population, area, languages, and per capita income; overview; and institutions involved in distance teaching. For each institution the following is included: address, contacts, aims and objectives, staff size, annual budget, course details, research, and special features. (NLA)

Recent survey data from Cote d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) is used to investigate gender differences in education and labor market participation. Previous researchers believed that women in Cote d'Ivoire were less likely than men to work for wages because of child-related obligations and low wage rates. This report contradicts this commonly held view by finding that women's limited participation is attributed, at least in part, to their having less education. A model based on the simultaneous determination of wages and choice of participation in the labor market is presented and is claimed to be more accurate than the common practice of treating these variables separately. The study also focuses on the differences between males and females in access to schooling. Numerous figures and tables of statistical data appear throughout the report. (DB)

With fewer than three years until the planned end-date of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), attention is rapidly turning to what will follow. The elaboration of the next global development agenda is a complex, multipronged process that is academic, political and practical, involving experts from a myriad of social and economic sectors and representing a cross-section of constituencies. While the formal U.N. process is still in the early stages, the ongoing discourse (predominantly occurring in the global north, but not exclusively) has introduced several potential frameworks for this agenda. This paper describes the leading frameworks proposed for the post-2015 global development agenda and discusses how education and learning fit within each of those frameworks. While many within the education community are working to develop a cohesive movement to advance an "access plus learning" agenda, it remains equally important to engage proactively with the broader development community to ensure that education fits within the agreed upon overarching organizing framework. The frameworks described below represent a snapshot of current thinking in 2012. On the road to 2015, the education community will need to refine and sharpen its thinking with respect to how learning is incorporated into the prevailing framework. The seven frameworks that will be addressed in this paper are: (1) Ending Absolute Poverty; (2) Equity and Inclusion; (3) Economic Growth and Jobs; (4) Getting to Zero; (5) Global Minimum Entitlements; (6) Sustainable Development; and (7) Well-Being and Quality of Life. (Contains 1 figure, 1 table, 6 footnotes, and 66 endnotes.)

This paper provides an overview of the available information concerning selected policy instruments intended to promote employer-provided training, including the stated rationale and objectives, the target groups and operational design as well as a at a summary of the evaluative evidence regarding their operation. The analysis focuses on policy instruments providing financial assistance or incentives, specifically, subsidies (including tax incentives and grants) and levy schemes that devote a least some share of their resources to continuing training. Training leave regulations are considered only to the extent that they can be treated as a form of subsidy or a levy scheme, depending on the main financing mechanism involved. Instruments that focus solely on improving the quality of training or enhancing transparency in the training market are not addressed. In addition to offering a description of different instruments, the paper discusses the strengths and weaknesses (or risks and opportunities, respectively) of different types of instrument or particular elements of instrument design. It also specifies principles of successful instrument design that have been put forth in the literature and concludes with some remarks regarding the choice of policies. Training funds in combination with levy schemes in OECD and non-OECD countries are appended. Individual sections contain endnotes. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

Transforming education systems to be fit for the 21st century is the common thread for creating inclusive and equitable societies resilient to conflict, climate change and economic crises. Now is the time for increased investment in African education systems. This paper describes: (1) the state of Africa's educational landscape; (2) innovative approaches to increase education financing; and (3) what can be done to put education back at the forefront of Africa's policy agenda while sparking improved outcomes across the entire education spectrum. [Additional collaborators for this paper include the African Development Bank and the African Union.]

Scaling up good corporate social investment practices in developing countries is crucial to realizing the "Education for All" and "Millennium Development Goals". Yet very few corporate social investments have the right mix of vision, financing, cross-sector engagement and leadership to come to scale. Globally, 67 million children are not enrolled in primary school, over 200 million are in school but not mastering basic skills such as reading, and many millions more complete post-primary education without the skills needed to participate in society or the local economy. Overcoming these challenges will require swift and bold action by many actors, including governments, multilateral organizations, donors and civil society. Corporations can use their core assets to generate shared value for business and society by helping get children into school, setting a strong learning agenda and scaling up what works in education. This policy paper looks at what works and what is not working in corporate efforts to further education in developing countries. (Contains 54 endnotes.)

Existing studies from the United States, Latin America and Asia provide scant evidence that private schools dramatically improve academic performance relative to public schools. Using data from Kenya--a poor country with weak public institutions--we find a large effect of private schooling on test scores, equivalent to one full standard deviation. This finding is robust to endogenous sorting of more able pupils into private schools. The magnitude of the effect dwarfs the impact of any rigorously tested intervention to raise performance within public schools. Furthermore, nearly two-thirds of private schools operate at lower cost than the median government school. Data on test scores, household survey and school administrative are appended. (Contains 1 figure, 2 tables, and 3 endnotes.)

Linking between schools in the United Kingdom and schools in sub-Saharan Africa has been a feature of the educational landscape for more than twenty years, but became a government priority between 2000 and 2010. Whilst the interest in Ireland was less, both countries resourced linking programmes primarily as a means of raising awareness of development issues. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) also became involved in school linking during the first decade of the twenty-first century with Plan UK and Link Community Development (Link) being the leading organisations in this field. However, due to funding constraints and change in United Kingdom government policy post 2010, both of these NGOs ended their linking programmes in 2011 and 2012 respectively. Link's involvement in school linking came from a development perspective; links were primarily seen as a mechanism for improving schools in sub-Saharan Africa. Development education only became a main feature of their linking programme with their European Union funded project, Partners in Development (PiD), which ran from 2010 to 2012. This project was funded from a development awareness budget line, but the NGO's proposal included development goals within the project. This became a major source of tension that was unresolved throughout the life of the project. This report is an evaluation of the "Partners in Development" project that was based on linking schools in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, with schools in Ghana, Malawi, Uganda, and South Africa. The evidence gathered was based on a combination of quantitative-based questionnaires, interviews with key staff within Link, and in-depth data gathered from a number of schools in Scotland. The main findings of the evaluation are as follows: (1) The Link Schools Programme (LSP) was clearly valued, but its impact was different in the United Kingdom and Ireland from that in South Africa, Ghana, Malawi, and Uganda; (2) The breadth of schools involved, particularly in the United Kingdom, suggests that the programme reached different schools from those which have been involved in other linking programmes; (3) The project suffered from funding criteria that continually focused on a target-driven approach; (4) Link staff became too heavily involved in administration and support; (5) As a consequence, many of the issues that often emerge in linking activities were not fully addressed; (6) The website was popular and the Solar Connect component that provided internet access to some of the schools in Africa was highly valued; and (7) Supported links developed by the Link model clearly have value. The following appendices are included: (1) Breakdown of schools participating in the Teacher Survey; (2) Rating of the Link Programme services. UK & Ireland schools; (3) Rating of the Link Programme services. African schools; (4) Profile of activities by school characteristics; (5) Evaluation Questionnaire; and (6) Focus Group Questions for Teachers in Scottish Link Schools--June 2012.

A large empirical literature has shown that user fees significantly deter public service utilization in developing countries. While most of these results reflect partial equilibrium analysis, we find that the nationwide abolition of public school fees in Kenya in 2003 led to no increase in net public enrollment rates, but rather a dramatic shift toward private schooling. Results suggest this divergence between partial- and general-equilibrium effects is partially explained by social interactions: The entry of poorer pupils into free education contributed to the exit of their more affluent peers. (Contains 2 figures, 4 tables, and 7 endnotes.)

The youth-led revolutions that rocked the Arab world earlier this year have refocused attention on the region's 100 million-strong youth demographic and its critical role in the transformation of existing political, economic, and social structures in the Middle East and North Africa. Youth under the age of 25 represent an estimated and unprecedented 60 percent of the region's population, and in many of the region's countries, approximately 30 percent of the population is between the ages of 15 and 29. They have heightened expectations for themselves and their societies, but are constrained by the economic and political realities in which they live. The current demands of Arab youth for change are rooted in deep frustrations with the existing status quo--not least of which is the failure of the social contract for advancement that should be offered by higher education. Despite more than a decade of dramatic expansion--in enrollment, female participation, numbers of institutions, and programs--higher education in the Arab world continues to fall far short of the needs of students, employers, and society at large. In most countries, the majority of students are enrolled in institutions that lack key human and physical resources for success and suffer from overcrowding and poor quality. Efforts to address these chronic problems have had only marginal success. High unemployment among university graduates is only one measure of the reality of an educational system that is not producing graduates with the skills needed to succeed in the modern global economy and economies that are not producing opportunities for massive numbers of new entrants. Higher education has a critical role to play in the national and regional restructuring of Arab economic and political institutions that is currently underway. The long term success or failure of today's reform initiatives will rest, to a large degree, on the ability of these societies to place higher education where it belongs--as the engine of social and economic progress. The new pressures for political change may provide a unique opportunity to break free from some of the obstacles that have held back meaningful educational changes in the past. This working group, convened at the 2011 U.S.-Islamic World Forum in Washington, DC, brought together educators, specialists, and public sector officials from the United States and the Middle East to review the current state of higher education in the Arab world and consider the key challenges facing this critical sector of society. How are different actors in the diverse landscape of Arab higher education advancing or impeding the goals of improving educational outcomes? To what degree do regional partnerships and cooperative efforts offer opportunities to overcome local obstacles in specific areas? Finally, where has important progress been made and what policy responses and initiatives should be encouraged to improve the ability of Arab educational institutions to meet the challenges of this transformational period? (Contains 11 footnotes.) [The 2011 U.S.-Islamic World Forum was convened by Safwan Masri and Katherine Wilkens. This report was produced by the Saban Center at Brookings

With an estimated 115 million children not attending primary school in the developing world, increasing access to education is critical. Resource constraints limit the effectiveness of demand-based subsidies. This paper focuses on the importance of a supply-side factor--the availability of low-cost teachers--and the resulting ability of the market to offer affordable education. The authors first show that private schools are three times more likely to emerge in villages with government girls' secondary schools (GSS). Identification is obtained by using official school construction guidelines as an instrument for the presence of GSS. In contrast, there is little or no relationship between the presence of a private school and girls' primary or boys' primary and secondary government schools. In support of a supply-channel, the authors then show that, for villages that received a GSS, there are over twice as many educated women and that private school teachers' wages are 27 percent lower in these villages. In an environment with poor female education and low mobility, GSS substantially increase the local supply of skilled women lowering wages locally and allowing the market to offer affordable education. These findings highlight the prominent role of women as teachers in facilitating educational access and resonate with similar historical evidence from developed economies. The students of today are the teachers of tomorrow. Appended are: (1) Selection Issues in the Wage Bill; and (2) Comparing Linear IV and Biprobit estimates. (Contains 2 figures, 7 tables and 23 footnotes.)

Conflict's path of devastation and chaos has dramatically slowed the ability of war-torn countries to reach the Education for All (EFA) goals adopted in Dakar (April 2000). This paper describes the situation confronting children, their families, and governments in conflict countries and describes the challenges of reaching universal primary education. The most logical starting point lies in supporting emergency education where it exists and dramatically expanding access to education where it does not exist. Yet, most primary-age children in war-affected areas are not in school and have no realistic hope of enrolling in one. Forced migrant children in refugee and Internally Displaced People (IDP) camps and settlements have a better chance of attending school. Education for and efforts to engage with youth remain limited. Youth programming, when it does exist, is usually poorly supported, and may not offer much hope in terms of opening employment and income opportunities. Periods before and immediately after conflicts require careful policy development. Preparedness planning and contingent strategies require attention. The paper also warns against top-down, material-based educational solutions. It is divided into five sections: (1) "Introduction"; (2) "Background: Children and War"; (3) "Educating Children Affected by Conflict: Current Experience"; (4) "Recommendations"; and (5) "Conclusion." An annex contains results of analysis of armed conflict on EFA goals from a sample of 12 countries. (Contains 61 references.) (BT)