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Copyright of Studia Histórica: Historia Moderna is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Pitti crystal column, preserved at the Uffizi Museum, is one of the most refined glyptic objects of the Renaissance age. Owing to its decorative system on a miniature scale, the significance of many of its scenes has remained unclear, and hence, as a consequence, so have its function, iconological message, the meaning of its all'antica style, and its intended recipient. Using detailed images of each engraved scene, this paper shows how the decorative system of the artefact (originally a mirror) is related to King Philip II of Spain (1527–1598). The entire decoration was designed to eulogize Philip II, and especially the Battle of Saint-Quentin (1557), and his consequent control over some Italian lands (Milan, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia) after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559). The paper investigates the reasons why Trajan's Column was chosen as an inspirational model for the Pitti column and how such an ancient model was re-elaborated and renewed through the combination of other elements that came from a wider antiquarian all'antica repertoire. In this way, it is possible to show that this valuable artefact is a clear example of how the use of all'antica style in the Renaissance was not purely referencing a glorious past, but was adapted to the use of the object itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to explore the historical approaches of the exiled Jesuit Mariano Llorente (1752-1816). For this analysis, I deepen vision of the Spanish colonies in America and the defense of the image of the king Felipe II. I pretend to understand better the writing and patriotic sensibility of this Valencian Jesuit, in accordance with other contemporary members of the Society of Jesus. I will focus his written production as a reaffirmation of imperial authority in America and exercise of appropriation of Spain’s history. Within the framework of the Eighteenth Century intellectual debates on history and «national characters», this novice performs an exercise of cultural distinction between Spain and the rest of European powers. His writing produces many stereotypes that reinforce, at the same time, the inequality between Europe and America. Llorente’s work, apparently coherent, highlight certain contradictions that question a pronounced dichotomy between Europe and its others, a cultural relationship that cannot be reduced to a single definition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cuadernos de Historia Contemporanea is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Most information concerning relations between Spain and China in the context of the early colonial Philippines comes from Spanish sources. In this paper we present a contribution from the Chinese. Soon after the Spaniards started settling Manila, the number of Chinese there started increasing rapidly. Relations between Chinese and Spanish were always fraught and the only protectors the Chinese had were the Dominican priests who ministered to them. In desperation they wrote a letter in Chinese to King Philip II, which was "translated" into Spanish. We do not know of any other letter document conceived in Chinese being sent to a king in this period. We present the powerful letter in English translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Cuadernos de Historia Moderna is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Tiempos Modernos is the property of Tiempos Modernos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this response, we demonstrate that Mauricio Drelichman and Hans-Joachim Voth, in their 2015 Economic History Review note 'Duplication without constraints: Álvarez-Nogal and Chamley's analysis of debt policy under Philip II', provide a misconceived and inaccurate account of our argument about the finances of Philip II in 'Debt policy under constraints: Philip II, the Cortes, and Genoese bankers' ( Economic History Review, 2014). Here, we summarize our position in the context of the current literature and provide a few comments on data gathering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Hispanic Research Journal is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper explores the relationship between two seated portraits of Philip II of Spain (1527–1598), one an oil sketch and one apparently the finished portrait derived from the sketch. Thus far, the two portraits have been attributed to Titian (Tiziano Vecellio, ca. 1488–1576). However, an analysis of each painting's style, chronology, and provenance challenges the nature of the paintings' relationship to one another and defies the attribution of the finished portrait to Titian. Franz von Lenbach (1836–1904), one of the leading portraitists in nineteenth-century Germany and a superior copyist of Old Master paintings, particularly those by Titian, instead emerges as the pivotal figure uniting the paintings and is here proposed as the author of the finished portrait. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This paper is about Charles V and Philip II construction of imperial concept, founded in a solid tradition that goes from Dante Alighieri's Monarchia to the writings of Mercurino Arborio da Gattinana, the very Grand Chancellor of Charles V. Simultaneously, the papes deals with the issue of the Right of Patronage. Its origins in the age of Reyes Católicos and its further expansions at the end of 16th Century are investigated in order to propose how the Castilian crown developed cesaropapist features not much different from the Anglican ecclesial system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Manuscrits: Revista d'Historia Moderna is the property of Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this article the conflicts and alliances between different Dukes of Pastrana, lords of a Grandee household, and their relatives are analysed from two viewpoints. The first perspective shows how litigation between early-modern aristocratic siblings for family inheritance was a very common phenomenon. Secondly, litigious kin were allies in the political and social arena. With these features in mind, this paper provides an explanation of aristocratic behaviour as the consequence of the composite nature of aristocratic identity and the two juridical bodies used by the elites. According to this juridical theory, sovereigns were juridically composed of two bodies. The first one was political, representing eternal royalty. The second one was natural, meaning the physical person of each king. As will be stated in the article, this royal conception of the two bodies was adopted by the nobility and played an important role in aristocratic family conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Historía da Sociedade e da Cultura is the property of Revista de Historia da Sociedade e da Cultura and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Quintana: Revista do Departamento de Historia da Arte USC is the property of Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Servicio de Publicaciones and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines the chivalric encounters organized on the occasion of the Joyous Entry of Prince Philip in the Low Countries in 1549–50. It poses the question as to how they functioned as a performative tool to enhance cohesion among the nobles of the Habsburg composite state. The tournaments served as a regulated outlet for noble violence, controlled by the prince and his closest collaborators. In this way, they both created and cemented the bonds of knightly brotherhood within the entourage of the household, while at the same time reaching out to others who did not (yet) belong to the new prince's circle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Manuscrits: Revista d'Historia Moderna is the property of Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of INTRECCI d'Arte is the property of Universita di Bologna, Dipartimento delle Arti visive, performative e mediali, Alma Mater Studiorum and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines the particular place of the quintuple canonization of 1622 in the long history of papal canonization. While the papacy gradually imposed its control over the creation of new saints in the Middle Ages, in the Modern Era it faced a double challenge to its practice. On the one hand, Luther condemned the elevation to the altars in 1523 of the Saxon bishop Benno of Meissen, in which he saw the creation of a new idol. And, in fact, a long silence from the Roman Curia followed. On the other hand, when Sixtus V decided to canonize a new saint in 1588 in response to the insistent request of Philip II of Spain, the Roman Curia was confronted with strong pressure from the new orders to have their founder canonized in the context of a multiplication of cults of beati that was beyond its control. The quintuple canonization of 1622 was the triumph of these orders and their founder, but Urban VIII drew radical consequences in the years that followed. He decided to impose new rules of procedure that allowed Rome to extend its monopoly to the cult of the beati and to regain for a few decades the parsimony of medieval canonization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans have introduced species out of their native areas for millennia, and characterising these historical introductions can provide insights into the long‐term progress of invasion processes. Here, archival sources and other historical documents are used to describe the motivations, negotiations and actions leading to fish and crayfish introductions into Spain in the second half of the 16th century. King Philip II of Spain brought to the Iberian Peninsula several gardening customs from central Europe, including the construction of fish ponds and their stocking with different aquatic species, many of which were naturally absent from Iberia. These interests led to the introduction of pike (Esox Lucius, Esocidae), common carp (Cyprinus carpio, Cyprinidae), tench (Tinca tinca, Cyprinidae) and Italian crayfish (Austropotamobius italicus, Astacidae). Historical documents allowed describing introduction events, their early management and their outcomes with high temporal, spatial and taxonomic precision. These results introduce a centuries‐long view on the history of the presence of these introduced species in the Iberian Peninsula, where they have all been successful invaders in different historical periods. This work exemplifies the large potential of archival documents to inform about long‐term human–nature relationships, with implications for present‐day environmental management (e.g. setting conservation targets). However, this potential has been only sparsely explored, arguably due to the lack of interactions between humanities and natural sciences. Interdisciplinary historical ecology research should be promoted in order to build robust and applicable knowledge on the long‐term variability of ecosystems and their biota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this joint paper Laura Muñoz Pérez and Trevor Dadson will examine the possibilities women had when participating in the cultural life at court, showing the relationships of patronage between noblewomen, women writers and other writers, and how this was also a way of promotion. Tied in with this will be an examination of the role of noblewomen in society at large, in particular the fact that they had more power and influence than is usually ascribed to them, especially but not solely if they were widows, when they often ended up running vast estates in the name of their eldest son (if they had one). Also, as ladies at court (‘damas de la reina’) these noblewomen had another form of influence, as they often acted as the eyes and ears of their fathers, brothers and husbands. The largely female court established around the Empress María of Austria in the Descalzas Reales in the early seventeenth century has been the subject of study, but the royal court under Philip III and Philip IV and the powerful women there still requires attention. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Faria e Sousa’s commentary toThe Lusiads(Madrid, 1639) still remains an important work of critical exegesis on the epic poem by Luis de Camões (Lisbon, 1572). In this paper, Julian Weiss and Catarina Fouto re-examine the significance of this work in the tradition of the Renaissance commentary and explore its relation to previous Spanish commentaries and translations of the text. Our interest in this commentary lies in our previous research into the political uses of Iberian commentary, and in the relation between translation and diplomacy. Crucially, the liminary texts which precede the Spanish translations published in the year of the annexation of Portugal (1580) transformThe Lusiadsinto a celebration of Philip III's imperial expansion and shape the reception of Camões’ epic by their European readers. Faria e Sousa responds to these attempts to colonize the text and to represent Portuguese as a language of inferior culture by engaging with the Iberian tradition of Renaissance commentary and the Spanish translations and commentaries to the epic of Camões. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of RACAR: Canadian Art Review / Revue d'art Canadienne is the property of Universities Art Association of Canada / Association d'Art des Universites du Canada and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines the image of Queen Elizabeth I (reg. 1558-1603) in Moroccan writings, focusing specifically on the period between 1588, the English victory over the Spanish Armada, and 1596, the English attack (with Moroccan logistical assistance) on Cadiz. Contrary to what some historians have claimed about Arab-Islamic ignorance of, and indifference to, Western Europe in the early modern period, the writings of Abd al-Aziz al-Fishtali (1549-1621), the Moroccan scribe in the royal court of Marrakesh during the reign of Mulay Ahmad al-Mansur (reg. 1578-1603), provide valuable information about English political and naval activity in the last decade of the 16th century. The letters of al-Fishtali include the only contemporary description of the English Queen by a non-European writer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines lending by a Genoese-led cartel to Philip II of Spain (1556-98) from the perspective of theory on sovereign debt. Models in this literature suggest that the Genoese linked specie deliveries from Spain to the Low Countries to lending in order to create a penalty to enforce their loans. The king tried to renege, the Genoese applied the penalty, and the king ultimately repaid. When the episode is used to examine theory, the Crown's observed debt ceiling and estimates of its cost of enduring the penalty and its ability to repay are in line with predictions of Bulow and Rogoff. The nature of the penalty has the flavor of Cole and Kehoe's model; its observation on the "path of play" is suggestive of Atkeson's model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses efforts of King Philip II of Spain for promotion of royal sites, starting with the construction of Casa del Bosque in Valsaín, Segovia. Topics discussed include connections between Flanders, Italy and Spain in the context of the gardens as a cultural interlinks of the Habsburg empire; renovation of the house and its garden in Casa del Campo, Spain; and view of the Casa del Campo in the Félix Castello painting.

Copyright of Imago Mundi is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of OHM: Obradoiro de Historia Moderna is the property of Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Servicio de Publicaciones and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In 1557 Mary Tudor and her husband Philip of Spain reunited in England for the final time. Most accounts describe the visit as a failure, with a disastrous war against France looming ahead, famine and bankruptcy threatening the country, and the restoration of Catholicism faltering as the queen started to fall ill. This article questions such negative accounts, arguing that the royal couple fashioned state ceremonies, court festivities and religious rituals to consolidate their marriage and successfully recast the image of their monarchy on a European stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of History Studies (13094688) is the property of History Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Philip II's death in September 1598 coincided with the restoration of Habsburg authority in the southern Low Countries after decades of revolt. Local obsequies for the deceased ruler therefore reclaimed ecclesiastical infrastructure and revived urban cohesion. In contrast to previous funerals, the Brussels service did not significantly stage a transfer of power. Instead, by selectively drawing on traces of former ceremonies, particularly Charles V's 1558 funeral, the ritual overcame the recent upheavals and soothed the anxieties surrounding the cession of sovereignty to the archdukes. Simultaneously, each important urban center also staged its own ceremonial, thereby stressing local privilege. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article studies the distribution of Christopher Plantin's Tridentine liturgical Books between 1568 and 1572 through a Philip II's royal ordinance of 1572 and the reports of a systematic visit to the bookshops of Castile that same year. This article analyses some of the formidable complexities, successes and failures of the clash between Crown, market and Church. It highlights Philip II's lack of control over the Spanish book market and the fraudulent import of liturgical books from Antwerp to Castile and the unofficial distribution of them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Co-herencia is the property of Universidad EAFIT and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Hispanic Research Journal is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

A bitter conflict between the Spanish and Ottoman empires dominated the second half of the sixteenth century. In this early modern "global" conflict, intelligence played a key role. The Duchy of Milan, home to Simon Sacerdoti (c.1540-1600), a Jew, had fallen to Spain. The fate that usually awaited Jews living on Spanish lands was expulsion--and there were signs to suggest that King Philip II (1527-1598) might travel down that road. Sacerdoti, the scion of one of Milan's wealthiest and best-connected Jewish families had access to secret information through various contacts in Italy and North-Africa. Such intelligence was highly valuable to Spanish forces, and Philip II was personally interested in it. However, this required Sacerdoti to serve an empire--Spain--with a long history of harming the Jews, and to spy on the Ottomans, widely considered as the Jews' supporters at the time. This article offers a reflection on Simon Sacerdoti's story. Examining how a Jew became part of the Spanish intelligence agency helps us understand how early modern secret information networks functioned and sheds new light on questions of Jewish identity in a time of uprootedness and competing loyalties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes two sixteenth-century proposals for a library that would be placed under the control of the king of Spain and accessible to the public. The first is Juan Páez de Castro's 1556 Memorial, often read as a blueprint for the institution that Philip II eventually founded at El Escorial. The second is Juan Bautista Cardona's Traza for El Escorial, addressed to the king in 1579, when that project was already in progress. Páez and Cardona dreamed of a library that would overcome the dangers of loss and dispersion associated with collections owned by flesh-and-bone individuals destined to die at some point. This article will show that Páez and Cardona drew inspiration from previous and ongoing projects in Italy, France, and Spain to conclude that the preservation and dissemination of books required the association with a printing press. This was a plan that, to the chagrin of Cardona's contemporaries, failed to adequately materialize for El Escorial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the Spanish humanist Juan Páez de Castro (1510-1570) an empire was only as good as its library. In his ambitious Memorial sobre las librerias (ca. 1556) he hoped to convince the recently crowned Phillip II to found a public library to serve the many needs of the Spanish monarchy. This article analyzes the goals of his scheme and its relationship to imperial governance. Knowledge coming from Spain's New World domains had a fundamental place in Páez de Castro's scheme. The library would gather materials from all the crowns under the jurisdiction of the Spanish king, organize them into categories and integrate the Old and New Worlds into a single comprehensive narrative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian & Latin American Economic History is the property of Cambridge University Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Carlos Álvarez- Nogal and Christophe Chamley recently published an article in the Economic History Review on ' Debt policy under constraints: Philip II, the Cortes, and Genoese bankers'. In this note, we show that several claims in their article are very similar to earlier research results, published or circulated long before Álvarez- Nogal and Chamley's original submission, by ourselves and other scholars (section I). These results are repeated without attribution or even mention of the earlier work. In addition, we show that what Álvarez- Nogal and Chamley present as new quantitative insights are actually replications of earlier results of ours (section II). Finally, Álvarez- Nogal and Chamley misrepresent our contributions, as well as those of several other scholars (section III). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the historiography of Juzgado General de Indios's institutionalization and indigenous justice by Spain's King Philip II. Various topics discussed include petition written by Mexican lieutenant Bustamante de Andrada in April 1587 over the tripartite relationship between Americans, access of Spain's Royal Courts by indigenous people and reformation of the justice in 1581.

Copyright of Hispanic Research Journal is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article reports on the existence of a list of 494 Spanish prisoners captured by the English after the Spanish Armada of 1589 held in the family archive of the de Bergeyck at Cortewalle Castle near Beveren, Netherlands. The soldiers and sailors were ransomed all together by King Philip II of Spain in 1590 under the supervision of the governor general of the Spanish Netherlands Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma.

The article discusses the writings in the Latin language authored by Nahua, or Aztec, individuals living in Mexico in the 1500s. Topics discussed include letters written by Nahua rulers addressed to European rulers such as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Philip II of Spain, and the use of Latin to convert the Mexican population to Christianity.

Under Philip II, Castile was the first country with a large nation-wide domestic public debt. A new view of that fiscal system is presented that is potentially relevant for other fiscal systems in Europe before 1800. The credibility of the debt, mostly in perpetual redeemable annuities, was enhanced by decentralized funding through taxes administered by cities making up the Realm in the Cortes. The accumulation of short-term debt depended on refinancing through long-term debt. Financial crises in the short-term debt occurred when the service of the long-term debt reached the revenues of its servicing taxes. They were not caused by liquidity crises and were resolved after protracted negotiations in the Cortes by tax increases and interest rate reductions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the education of French King Louis XIV, with a particular focus on the study of his ancestry. The author comments on the link between Louis XIV and historical royalty, including his mother Ana of Austria, his grandmother Marie de Medici, who herself was the granddaughter of Emperor Ferdinand I. She also considers the relationship between Louis XIV and Charles V and Philip II. The importance of kinship and familial relations in the inheritance and the claim to the throne is also examined.

The article focuses on British poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey. Among the topics discussed include the fall of the Spanish monarchy in Great Britain, Iberian campaigns of Southey written in the "Edinburgh Annual Register" periodical, and the revolution of the Netherlands against King Philip II of Spain in the 16th century to show they can defeat Spanish armies.

Copyright of Mediterranea - Ricerche Storiche is the property of Mediterranea-Ricerche Storiche and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

What sustained borrowing without third-party enforcement in the early days of sovereign lending? Philip II of Spain accumulated towering debts while stopping all payments to his lenders four times. How could the sovereign borrow much and default often? We argue that bankers' ability to cut off Philip II's access to smoothing services was key. A form of syndicated lending created cohesion among his Genoese bankers. As a result, lending moratoria were sustained through a 'cheat-the-cheater' mechanism. Our article thus lends empirical support to a recent literature that emphasises the role of bankers' incentives for continued sovereign borrowing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the treaties and official relationship between Spain and Portugal in the sixteenth century. Philip II of Spain was the first Spanish king to also hold dominion over Portugal and its empire although he told his people that the countries would be kept separate according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. Although such lines were sometimes blurred during the Union of the Crowns, the article looks particularly at how the law effected the colonial pursuits of each nation. The article traces the history of each countries expansion overseas into Africa during the fifteenth century. The sailor Christopher Columbus sailed for Portugal before gaining the patronage of Spain and the voyages of sailor Vasco da Gama were also on behalf of Spain.