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Species co-existence depends on how organisms utilize their environment and resources. Little is known about the winter diet composition and sympatric co-existence of South China sika deer and its companion species in Taohongling. In this study, high-throughput sequencing and metabarcoding trnL were used to study the diet composition and interspecific relationship including sika deer, Reeve’s muntjac, and Chinese hare. Our results show that 203 genera in 90 families are contained in the diet of sika deer, 203 genera in 95 families for Reeve’s muntjac, and 163 genera in 75 families for Chinese hare. Sika deer fed on Rubus chingii, Loropetalum chinense, and Eurya japonica in winter, accounting for 75.30%; Reeve’s muntjac consumed mainly R. chingii, E. japonica, and Euonymus grandiflorus, accounting for 68.80%, and Chinese hare mainly fed on R. chingii, Smilax china, and Rhus chinensis, accounting for 41.98%. The Shannon index showed no significant difference between groups (p > 0.05). The NMDS analysis found considerable overlap among three species. Sika deer and Reeve’s muntjac consumed similar forage plants but varied greatly in Chinese hare, which occupied the widest choice in winter, resulting in higher diet breadth and increased dietary divergence, thereby reducing competition and facilitating coexistence. The diet niche overlap index among them, as represented by Pianka’s index, ranging from 0.62 between sika deer and Chinese hare to 0.83 between sika deer and Reeve’s muntjac, which indicated a more similar niche and potential competition in closely related species. Our findings provide a new diet perspective of three herbivores, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of resource partitioning and species coexistence.

The turbinal skeleton inside the nasal cavity supports the respiratory and olfactory epithelia of the mammalian nose and can provide systematic and morphofunctional information. For the first time, the turbinal skeleton of Pentalagus furnessi (Amami rabbit) from Japan is described based on µCT scans and virtual 3D reconstructions of two specimens. In general, the turbinal skeleton of Pentalagus furnessi resembles the pattern and characters observed in other Leporidae. The maxilloturbinal is highly dendritic, nasoturbinal and crista semicircularis are in close contact and form a common recess, the frontoturbinal recess houses two frontoturbinals and one interturbinal between them, the ethmoturbinal recess houses three ethmoturbinals and one interturbinal between ethmoturbinal I and II. Pentalagus furnessi is derived from the leporid grundplan in having a lamina semicircularis with almost straight posterior margin and ventral lamella and in showing a single-scrolled and relatively short interturbinal between frontoturbinal 1 and 2. These characters can be regarded as autapomorphic for the Amami rabbit. Furthermore, the two specimens have an additional small and short interturbinal between frontoturbinal 2 and ethmoturbinal I that shows some variation. This pattern supports previous observations of intraspecific variation of certain interturbinals in Oryctolagus cuniculus and some Sylvilagus and Lepus species. The comparison of the turbinal skeleton of Pentalagus furnessi and its possible sister taxon (e.g., Pronolagus, Poelagus or Caprolagus) reveals a puzzling pattern which is discussed.

Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758 (Fig. 156) Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758: 58. COMMON NAME. — Cape Hare. CURRENT NAME. — Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758. See Hoffmann & Smith (2005: 196). COLLECTOR/S. — No data. COLLECTION LOCALITY. — Cape Town, South Africa. COLLECTION DATE. — Between 3 and 24 January 1804. SPECIMEN NUMBER/S. — No data. ILLUSTRATIONS. — Illustrated by Charles-Alexandre Lesueur – Muséum d’Histoire naturelle du Havre, Inv. no. 80130 (Fig. 156; two living animals)., Published as part of Jackson, Stephen M., Jansen, Justin J. F. J., Baglione, Gabrielle & Callou, Cécile, 2021, Mammals collected and illustrated by the Baudin Expedition to Australia and Timor (1800 - 1804): A review of the current taxonomy of specimens in the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle de Paris and the illustrations in the Muséum d'Histoire naturelle du Havre, pp. 387-548 in Zoosystema 43 (21) on page 426, DOI: 10.5252/zoosystema2021v43a21, http://zenodo.org/record/5142972, {"references":["LINNAEUS C. 1758. - Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Editio decima, reformata. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae. Volume 1. https: // www. biodiversitylibrary. org / page / 726886","HOFFMANN R. S. & SMITH A. T. 2005. - Order Lagomorpha, in WILSON D. E. & REEDER D. M. (eds) Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Third Edition: 185 - 211."]}

Lepus europaeusPallas, 1778 European Hare Lepus (Eulagos) europaeus europaeus Pallas, 1778:30. Type locality not stated; restricted to “southern Poland” by Trouessart (1910); further restricted to southwestern Poland by Ognev (1940:140). Lepus t [imidus]. albus Bechstein, 1801:1096. Type locality “Thuringia, Germany.” Lepus t [imidus]. flavus Bechstein, 1801:1096. Type locality “Thuringia, Germany.” Lepus t [imidus]. niger Bechstein, 1801:1096. Type locality “Thuringia, Germany.” Lepus medius Nilsson, 1820:224: Type locality “Zealand, Denmark.” Lepus hybridus Desmarest, 1822:349. Type locality “certain cantons of Siberia and Russia.” Lepus syriacus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832: pt. 2, sig. u, fig, XIV, II. Type locality “Mount Lebanon.” Lepus caspicus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832: pt. 2, sig. y. Type locality “Astrachan [=Asktrakhan, Russia].” Lepus aquilonius Blasius, 1842:89. Type locality “ hauptsächlich den Gegenden zwischen dem 56.° und 63. ° N. Br.;” central Russia. Lepus timidus var. hymenalis Tumac Eversmann, 1850:201. Type locality “Kazan.” Lepus campicola Gervais, 1859:47. Nomen nudum. Lepus meridionalis Gervais, 1859:47. Nomen nudum. Eulagos Judeae Gray, 1867:222. Type locality “The Holy Land;” restricted to Ain Faskhah, Palestine by Qumsiyeh (1996:314). Lepus timidus coronatus Fitzinger, 1867:161. Nomen nudum. Lepus timidus rufus Fitzinger, 1867:161. Nomen nudum. Lepus timidus cinereus Fitzinger, 1867:161. Nomen nudum. Lepus timidus nigricans Fitzinger, 1867:161. Nomen nudum. Lepus timidus maculatus Fitzinger, 1867:161. Nomen nudum. Lepus campestris Bogdanov, 1871:175. Name preoccupied, not L. campestris Bachman, 1837. Lepus timidus var. argenteogrisea König-Warthausen, 1875:277. Type locality “Ulm,” Württemberg, Germany. Lepus timidus var. tumak Tichomirov and Korchagin, 1889:31. First suitable name for tumac Eversmann, 1850. Lepus transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901:236. Type locality “von Taslau in Rumänien.” Lepus creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903:126. Type locality “Crete.” Lepus cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903:127. Type locality “Cyprus.” Lepus parnassius Miller, 1903:145. Type locality “Agorianni, north side of Lyakura (Parnassus) Mts., Greece.” Lepus cyrensis Satunin, 1905:60. Type locality “Village Barda, Djevanshirski county, Elisavetpolski province of Russia.” Lepus e [uropaeus]. pyrenaicus Hilzheimer, 1906:512. Type locality “(Bagnèrs), Pyrenäen.” © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Mammalogists, www.mammalogy.org. 125 Lepus e [uropaeus]. transsylvaticus Hilzheimer, 1906:512. Incorrect subsequent spelling of transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901. Lepus e [uropaeus]. meridiei Hilzheimer, 1906:512. Type locality “(Aveyron), Sudfrankreich [=southern France].” Lepus dayanus connori Robinson, 1918:15. Type locality “between Ahwaz and Mohammerah, Karun R. [=Karun River], Persia.” Lepus europaeus tesquorum Ognev (in Ognev and Worobiev, 1923), 1923:115. Type locality “Dokuchaevskaya Experimental Station.” Lepus europaeus ghigi de Beaux, 1927:2. Type locality “Stampalia, Island, Aegean Sea” vide Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1966:437). Lepus europaeus caucasicus Ognev, 1929.:75. Type locality “Umgebung von Wladikawkas [=vicinity of Vladikavkaz, North Ossetia].” L [epus]. e [uropaeus]. caucasicus nato ponticus Ognev, 1929:75. Type locality “Ansiedlung Beta, Tschernomorski-Gouvernement,” Black Sea Coast. L [epus]. e [uropaeus]. caspicus nato kalmykorum Ognev, 1929:75. Type locality “Sangegend [= sand zone of] Akima Ikizochura, Kalmyken-Steppe.” Lepus europaeus carpathous de Beaux, 1929:144. Type locality “a Scarpanto [=in Karpathos]. Lepus europaeus iranensis Goodwin, 1939:4. Type locality “ Teheran, Iran; alt about 3500 feet.” Lepus europaeus niethammeri Wettstein, 1943:282. Type locality “Vytina, 1000m altitude, Peloponnese,” southern Greece. Lepus europaeus borealis Kuznetsov, 1944:271. Type locality “Northern Bashkiria;” Bashkortostan Republic of Russia. Lepus europaeus biarmicus Heptner, 1948:709. Replacement name for Lepus europaeus borealis Kuznetsov, 1944. Lepus cyanotus Blanchard, 1957:30. Type locality “Lanslebourg, Savoie, France, 2600 m.” Lepus capensis astaricus Baloutch, 1978:444. Type locality “dans la forêt d’Astara à 30 km de la Mer Caspienne.” CONTEXT AND CONTENT. Order Lagomorpha, family Leporidae, genus Lepus. Sixteen subspecies are currently recognized (Schai-Braun and Hackländer 2016): L. e. caspicus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832. See above; kalmykorum Ognev is a synonym. L. e. connori Robinson, 1918. See above; astaricus Baloutch and iranensis Goodwin are synonyms. L. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903. See above. L. e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903. See above. L. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905. See above; caucasicus Ognev, ghigi de Beaux, are synonyms. L. e. europaeus Pallas, 1778. See above; albus Bechstein, aregenteogrisea Konig-Warthausen, cyanotus Blachard, flavus Bechstein, niger Bechstein, and pyrenaicus Hilzheimer are synonyms. L. e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822. See above; aquilonius Blasius, biarmicus Heptner, borealis Kuznetsov, campestris Bogdanov, hyemalis Eversmann, tesquorum Ognev and Worobiev, tumac Tichomirov and Kortchagin are synonyms. L. e. judeae (Gray, 1867). See above. L. e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906:512. Type locality “Karpathen [=Carpathian Mountains].” L. e. medius Nilsson, 1820. See above. L. e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898:152. Type locality “Herefordshire;” England. L. e. parnassius Miller, 1903. See above; niethammeri Wettstein is a synonym. L. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929. See above. L. e. rhodius Festa, 1914:9. Type locality “Island of Rhodes.” L. e. syriacus Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1832. See above. L. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901. See above; campicola Gervais, cinereus Fitzinger, coronatus Fitzinger, maculates Fitzinger, meridiei Hilzheimer, meridionalis Gervais, nigricans Fitzinger, rufus Fitzinger, and transsylvaticus Hilzheimer are synonyms. NOMENCLATURE NOTES. The vernacular names of Lepus europaeus are European brown hare, European hare, brown hare, and field hare. In Germany field hare (Feldhase) is most commonly used throughout the country. Petter (1961) placed L. europaeus into L. capensis as a polytypic species which ranges from North East Africa eastward across the North Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey, Russia, and China. He argued that body size, dental characters, and pelage color depend on climatic and ecological variation among habitats. This was accepted until further morphological studies argued the converse. Sludski and Strautmann (1980) stated the “large L. europaeus ” and “small L. capensis ” (= L. tolai) in Kazakhstan were sympatric species without evidence of hybridization and interpreted it as overlapping ends of a Rassenkreis (ring of populations). Also results of reanalysis by Angermann (1983) indicated a marked discontinuity between both species running from the eastern Mediterranean coast (central Israel) through Iran, and on this basis separated L. europaeus from L. capensis and L. tolai (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). Recent research (Slimen et al. 2005, 2006, 2008) support Petter’s hypothesis that L. europaeus and L. capensis are conspecific. However, until conclusive evidence is available, most taxonomists retain L. europaeus and L. capensis as valid species (Hackländer and Schai-Braun 2018). DIAGNOSIS Lepus europaeus (Fig. 1) and the sympatric Lepus timidus (mountain hare) in the northern hemisphere are very similar in size.Although some arctic subspecies of L.timidus may be as large as, or even larger, than the largest L. europaeus, L. europaeus is generally heavier at 3.5–5.0 kg (L. timidus averages from 2.4 kg in the Alps to 3.4 kg in Siberia—Angerbjorn 2018). Headbody length of L. europaeus is 550–650 mm (460–560 mm in L. timidus). The ears are longer from notch 110–140 mm and when bent forward they are longer than forehead (versus 67–106 mm in L. timidus, ears when bent forward are equal in length to forehead); the tail is also longer at 75–140 mm (mean 95 mm) compared with 53–70 mm in L. timidus; length of hind foot is 130–164 mm (mean 147 mm) which is shorter than in L. timidus (145–172 mm—Krapp 2003; Angerbjorn 2018). The length of the skull (from the most rostral to the most caudal point of the occipital) averages 97.1 mm in L. europaeus (L. timidus averages 90 mm). The facial region of the skull is extended with markedly raised nasalia (Fig. 2) compared to a shorter facial and a more concave frontal region in L. timidus. Dentale is softer, processus condyloideus is inclined more posteriorly than in L. timidus. Diastema relatively long (average 31.2 mm), and at over 80% of lower toothrow, longer than in L. timidus, corpus mandibulae with incisivus (I) inclined anteroventrally (anterodorsal in L. timidus). Incisivus 1 (I1) of L. europaeus are rectangular in section; ratio of length to width 0.74:0.80 compared to the more quadratic dimension in L. timidus of 0.84:0.95; incisors are additionally more curved than in L. timidus. Root of I1 far anterior of sutura premaxillo-maxillaris with a frequency of 78.3–100% compared to 98.6–100% in L. timidus. Zygomatic length (34.7–41.8 mm) and zygomatic width (44–49 mm) are longer than in L. timidus (length = 33.4–37.9; width = 42.5– 45.6 mm). Front and rear wings of supraorbital appendix are well developed and mostly free (not as well developed in L. timidus), osseous palate shorter (compared to L. timidus), choanae wide. Coat color of L. europaeus does not change to white in winter as in L. timidus, although animals in the northern latitudes may turn slightly lighter. Teat formula 2p + 4a = 6 compared to 2p + 6a = 8 for L. timidus (Krapp 2003). Although similar in appearance to L. europaeus, Lepus capensis (Cape hare) is overall smaller and lighter (with ear length 97–114 mm; skull length 27.5–30 mm; length of hind foot 93–103 mm, weight 1.5–2.5 kg). When compared to the sympatric Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) the difference is obvious. The European rabbit is smaller (body weight 0.9–1.8 kg, head–body length 375 [female] and 406 [male] mm), and has a more compact shape. The European rabbit burrows and its leverets are born nidicolous (altricial) compared to the L. europaeus which lives aboveground with nidifugous (precocial) leverets. Ears are shorter (when bent forward they do not extend to the nose) and have no black tips. Furthermore, the eyes do not have a light-brown iris but look black and the pelage has more grayish than yellowish base hair and longer guard hair with black ends (Zörner 1981; Krapp 2003). GENERAL CHARACTERS Lepus europaeus is the largest species of Lepus in Europe with a head–body length of 550–650 mm. The weight ranges from 3.5 to 5 kg and varies in both males and females during the course of the year, due to food supply and reproductive cycle. Length of cranium is 96–104 mm, width of zygomatic arch 44–51 mm, width of cranium 28.9–35.1 mm, cranium height 26.1–29.7 mm, length of lower toothrow 19–21 mm, and length of upper toothrow 17–19 mm. Depending on geographical location and seasonal changes, the pelage color of L. europaeus ranges from tawny-brown to grayish-brown, with a beige-white venter. The face is brown with beige eye rings. Eyes are large with black pupils and light-brown iris. Molting occurs twice a year, one starting around February the other starting in July. The winter coat may be slightly lighter toward yellowish-gray, especially in northern regions of its distribution. The tail (75–140 mm) is V-shaped, black above and white below. Length of hind foot is 130–150 mm. Ears with black tips are 110–140 mm, longer than the forehead when bent forward. External sexual dimorphism is lacking; thus, sex determination is only possible by examining genitalia (Zörner 1981; Krapp 2003). DISTRIBUTION During the last IceAge (about12,000 years ago) Lepus europaeus was forced into southern Europe, only L. timidus could survive in more northern habitats due to its adaptions to colder conditions. After that L. europaeus recolonized the postglacial steppe landscape and later adapted well to agricultural farmland (Fickel 2003). Lepus europaeus is native in Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldavia, Montenegro, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Syrian Arab Republic, Turkey, and Ukraine. L. europaeus was introduced in Argentina, Australia and Tasmania, Barbados, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Crete, Falkland Islands (Malvinas), Ireland, New Zealand, Réunion, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, and Uruguay (Fig. 3; Hackländer and Schai-Braun 2019). Masseti (2012) gives a broad overview of several Lepus taxa of the Ionian and Aegean Islands. He lists L. e. creticus, from Cephalonia, Crete, and several small islets of Crete, including Gavdhos, Gavdhopoula, Gaidouronisi (Chrysi), Koufonisi, and the Archipelago of the Dionysades. Furthermore, L. e. ghigii, from Astypalaia, L. e. carpathous, from Karpathos, L. e. rhodius, from Rhodos, and L. e. cyrensis, from the island of Kos. Subspecies of L. europaeus of Paximada (Dionysades Islands) and Koufonisi are smaller than those of Crete; however, they fit the typical morphology of Lepus europaeus europaeus, and not L. capensis (Niethammer 1992). Distinction of insular subspecies was based on coat coloration, body, and skull measurements, and they can be regarded more as ecophenotypic varieties than true geographical subspecies. Nonetheless, Mamuris et al. (2001) found high mtDNA variability and detected haplotypes from the Greek hares that were different from those of Central Europe. Based on this, Suchentrunk et al. (2003) analyzed the multilocus allozyme variability of Greek hares with regard to the occurrence of indigenous alleles due to the late Pleistocene refuge (see “Genetics”). In summary, Greek hares differ from Bulgarian hares, but within Greek hares the gene pool diversity is slight, thus favoring the hypothesis of a late Pleistocene refugial population in the southern Balkans, with little genetic differentiation among Greek subspecies to support earlier descriptions. A clear difference can be made between Anatolian and European brown hares. In Turkey, Demirbaş and Albayrak (2014) compared morphometric data and pelage color of L. e. europaeus subspecies, namely, L. e. transsylvanicus, L. e. cyrensis, L. e. caucasicus, and L. e. syriacus, and concluded that Anatolian hares belong to the subspecies L. e. syriacu s. In Canada, L. e. hybridus was introduced and established in Ontario around the Great Lakes and south of the Canadian Shield. Nine individuals escaped from captivity near Brantford, Ontario, in 1912, slowly spreading in southern Ontario north of Lake Erie (St. Thomas and Woodstock), west and north of Lake Ontario (Toronto) to Goodrich on the east side of Lake Huron. However, it has failed to spread further north (Reynolds and Stinson 1959; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). In the United States L. e. hybridus was introduced into Dutchess County, New York, in 1893. Importations continued through 1911 to provide a game species. L. e. hybridus was introduced and established in New York and Connecticut (Hall 1951; Whitaker and Hamilton 1998). In Australia L. europaeus was introduced and became established on the shores of Westernport Bay, Victoria in 1862. Another colony was set up in 1863 on Phillip Island by the Acclimatization Society of Victoria where it thrived and became a source for distribution to many parts, for example, Tasmania and New Zealand (Myers et al. 1989). In Australia L. europaeus now occupies about 700,000 km 2 in the east and south (Stott 2003). In New Zealand the first L. europaeus introduction was in 1851 from Britain but it died out, the second introduction of six L. europaeus came also from Britain via Australia in 1863 and established a stable population (up to 200 in 1865). Compared to European rabbits introduced at around the same time it did not become a pest (Flux 1990). For South America, Grigera and Rapoport (1983) and Bonino et al. (2010) give detailed but somewhat conflicting information about L. europaeus (considering it conspecific with L. capensis). Thirty-six L. europaeus were imported from Germany in 1888 at “Estancia La Hansa” near the town of Cañada de Gomez, Province of Santa Fe, Argentina. From France L. europaeus was introduced in 1897 near Tandil, Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and nine L. europaeus were liberated in the Province of Santa Cruz, southern Argentina in 1930. In the 1980s, L. europaeus occupied large parts of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and southern parts of Bolivia and Brazil. Since then it spread further north and, probably coming from Bo, Published as part of Bock, Anni, 2020, Lepus europaeus (Lagomorpha: Leporidae), pp. 125-142 in Mammalian Species 52 (997) on pages 125-138, DOI: 10.1093/mspecies/seaa010, http://zenodo.org/record/4570375, {"references": ["PALLAS, P. S. 1778. Novae Species Quadrupedum e Glirium Ordine. SVMTV Wolfgang Waltheri, Erlangae, Germany.", "TROUESSART, E. L. 1910. Faune des Mammifres D'Europe. R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin, Germany.", "OGNEV, S. I. 1940. Zveri SSSR i prilezhashchikh stran: Gryzuny. (Zveri vostochnoiEvropy i severnoi Azii) [Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries: rodents (mammals of eastern Europe and northern Asia)]. Akademiya Nauk SSSR 4: 1 - 615 (in Russian).", "BECHSTEIN, J. M. 1801. 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Bock, Anni (2020): Lepus europaeus (Lagomorpha: Leporidae). Mammalian Species 52 (997): 125-142, DOI: 10.1093/mspecies/seaa010, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mspecies/seaa010

Sylvilagus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758 Forest Rabbit, Tapití Figure 4Q Examined material. BOLIVIA; Province of Ñuflo de Chávez of Santa Cruz Department; Centro “Chiquitos”; camera stations 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 (Table 1); first capture on 30 March 2017; secondary forest patch in pastureland, primary forest, and border of pastureland to forest. Identification. This is a small forest rabbit (0.5–1.2 kg) with relatively long ears (but shorter than other lagomorphs), an agouti-brown body, and a black tail., Published as part of Jansen, Martin, Engler, Marc, Blumer, Luka Moritz, Rumiz, Damián I., Aramayo, José Luis & Krone, Oliver, 2020, A camera trapping survey of mammals in the mixed landscape of Bolivia's Chiquitano region with a special focus on the Jaguar, pp. 323-335 in Check List 16 (2) on page 331, DOI: 10.15560/16.2.323

Family LEPORIDAE Fischer, 1817 In Korea, the Family Leporidae contains two species of the Genus Lepus, L. coreanus and L. mandshuricus. These two species have often been confused (Jones & Johnson 1965). Lepus coreanus is present in most of Korea, while L. mandshuricus occupies the northern border regions between Korea and China., Published as part of Jo, Yeong-Seok, Baccus, John T. & Koprowski, John L., 2018, Mammals of Korea: a review of their taxonomy, distribution and conservation status, pp. 1-216 in Zootaxa 4522 (1) on page 12, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4522.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/2610198, {"references":["Jones Junior, J. K. & Johnson, D. H. (1965) Synopsis of the lagomorphs and rodents of Korea. University of Kansas, Lawrence, pp. 359 - 407."]}

Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892 — Korean Hare Lepus sinensis coreanus Thomas, 1892 p.146; Type locality-Seoul; Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951 p.442; Won, 1958 p.443; Won, 1967 p.159; Corbet, 1978 p.73; Yoon, 1992 p.62. L. coreanus: Thomas, 1906 p.865; Jones & Johnson, 1965 p.362; Han, 1994 p.46; Won & Smith, 1999 p.28; Han, 2004b p.99. L. sinensis: Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951 p.441; Corbet, 1978 p.73. L. mandschuricus: Won, 1968 p.145 (probably misspelling of mandshuricus). Range: The distribution of L. coreanus ranges throughout the Korean Peninsula (Smith & Jo 2018b; Fig. 4). Although Korean hares inhabit coastal islands connected by bridges to the mainland, no record exists for the remote islands. Remarks: Previously regarded as a subspecies of L. sinensis, but the two species are allopatric (Jones & Johnson 1965). Lepus coreanus has an endemic status in Korea (Ministry of Environment 2005). Although Wu et al. (2005) merged this species to L. timidus based on cytochrome b gene analyses, L. coreanus is clearly distinguished from L. timidus by analysis of both nuclear thyroglobulin (TG) gene and mitochondrial control region (Koh & Jang 2010). Hoffmann and Smith (2005) failed to recognize a subspecies for L. coreanus in Korea. Conservation status: The South Korean government removed Lepus coreanus as a game species in 2005 because of declining populations. Also, Ulsan and Gwangju Metropolitan governments made L. coreanus a provincially protected species., Published as part of Jo, Yeong-Seok, Baccus, John T. & Koprowski, John L., 2018, Mammals of Korea: a review of their taxonomy, distribution and conservation status, pp. 1-216 in Zootaxa 4522 (1) on pages 12-13, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4522.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/2610198, {"references":["Thomas, O. (1892) Diagnosis of a new subspecies of hare from the Corea. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 6, 9, 146 - 147. https: // doi. org / 10.1080 / 00222939208677292","Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946. British Museum (Natural History), London, 810 pp.","Won, P. H. (1958) A hand list of Korean mammals. Bulletin of Kyung-Hee University, 1, 427 - 460.","Won, P. H. (1967) Illustrated encyclopedia of fauna and flora of Korea. Fol. 7. Mammals. Ministry of Education, Seoul, 663 pp. [in Korean]","Corbet, G. B. (1978) The mammals of the Palaearctic region: a taxonomic review. British Museum (Natural History), London, 314 pp.","Yoon, M. H. (1992) The wildlife of Korea. Daewonsa Publishing Company, Seoul, 142 pp. [in Korean]","Thomas, O. (1906 [1907]) The Duke of Bedford's Zoological Exploration in Eastern Asia. - II. List of small mammals from Korea and Quelpart. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 76, 858 - 865.","Jones Junior, J. K. & Johnson, D. H. (1965) Synopsis of the lagomorphs and rodents of Korea. University of Kansas, Lawrence, pp. 359 - 407.","Han, S. H. (1994) The checklist of Mammals in North Korea. Nature Conservation, 86, 44 - 50. [in Korean]","Won, C. M. & Smith, K. G. (1999) History and current status of mammals of the Korean Peninsula. Mammal Review, 29, 3 - 33. https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 2907.1999.00034. x","Han, S. H. (2004 b) Order Lagomorpha. In: Won, B. O. (Ed.), The mammals of Korea. Dongbang Media Press, Seoul, pp. 95 - 101. [in Korean]","Won, H. K. (1968) The mammals of Korea. Institute of Science Press, Pyeongyang, 408 pp. [in Korean]","Smith, A. T. & Jo, Y. S. (2018 a) Ochotona coreana Allen and Andrews, 1913 Korean Pika. In: Smith, A. T., Johnston, C. H., Alves, P. C. & Hacklander, K. (Eds.), Lagomorphs: pika, rabbits, and hares of the world. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 39 - 40.","Ministry of Environment (2005) Endemic species of Korea. Ministry of Environment, Gwacheon, 458 pp. [in Korean]","Wu, C., Wu, J., Bunch, T. D., Li, Q., Wang, Y. & Zhang, Y. (2005) Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of Lepus in eastern Asia based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetic Evolution, 37, 45 - 61. https: // doi. org / 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2005.05.006","Koh, H. S. & Jang, K. H. (2010) Genetic distinctness of the Korean hare, Lepus coreanus (Mammalia, Lagomorpha), revealed by nuclear thyroglobulin gene and mtDNA control region sequences. Biochemical Genetics, 48, 706 - 710. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 10528 - 010 - 9353 - 0","Hoffmann, R. S. & Smith, A. T. (2005) Order Lagomorpha. In: Wilson, D. E. & Reeder, D. M. (Eds.), Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. 3 rd Edition. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 185 - 211."]}

Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861 —Manchurian Hare Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861 p.684; Type locality-Mt. Bureja, eastern Siberia; Jones & Johnson, 1965 p.363; Corbet, 1978 p.74; Han, 1994 p.46; Won & Smith, 1999 p.28; Han, 2004b p.101. L. europaeus mandshuricus: Tate, 1947 p.205. L. brachyurus: Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951 p.442. L. brachyurus mandshuricus: Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951 p.442. Range: The Manchurian hare has a limited distribution in extreme northern Korea through Pyeonganbuk Province, Jagang Province, Ryanggang Province, and Hamgyeongbuk Province (Kim et al. 2015; Fig. 5). Remarks: The taxonomic assignment of the Manchurian hare (L. mandshuricus) has fluctuated. Sowerby (1923, 1933) and Loukashkin (1943) recognized this hare as a separate species, while Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) placed it as a subspecies of the Japanese hare L. brachyurus, because of similarities in characteristics of the teeth and cranial measurements. Wu et al. (2005) supported a species status based on the inferred phylogenetic relationships and the mean maximum likelihood distance on the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b, 12S, partial ND4 and control region fragments between the Manchurian hare and Japanese hare (0.197). In addition, mammalogists confused Lepus mandshuricus with L. coreanus. Jones and Johnson (1965) found specimens of L. mandshuricus identified as L. coreanus. Won (1967) listed L. coreanus as the only species of hare in Korea; whereas, Won (1968) reported L. mandshuricus as the only species in Korea. However, nuclear and mitochondrial analyses supported L. mandshuricus as a distinct species from L. timidus and L. coreanus (Koh & Jang 2010)., Published as part of Jo, Yeong-Seok, Baccus, John T. & Koprowski, John L., 2018, Mammals of Korea: a review of their taxonomy, distribution and conservation status, pp. 1-216 in Zootaxa 4522 (1) on page 13, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4522.1.1, http://zenodo.org/record/2610198, {"references":["Radde, G. (1861) New mammal species from eastern Siberia. Bulletin de I' Acad. Imperial de St. Petersburg, 3, 684 - 686.","Jones Junior, J. K. & Johnson, D. H. (1965) Synopsis of the lagomorphs and rodents of Korea. University of Kansas, Lawrence, pp. 359 - 407.","Corbet, G. B. (1978) The mammals of the Palaearctic region: a taxonomic review. British Museum (Natural History), London, 314 pp.","Han, S. H. (1994) The checklist of Mammals in North Korea. Nature Conservation, 86, 44 - 50. [in Korean]","Won, C. M. & Smith, K. G. (1999) History and current status of mammals of the Korean Peninsula. Mammal Review, 29, 3 - 33. https: // doi. org / 10.1046 / j. 1365 - 2907.1999.00034. x","Han, S. H. (2004 b) Order Lagomorpha. In: Won, B. O. (Ed.), The mammals of Korea. Dongbang Media Press, Seoul, pp. 95 - 101. [in Korean]","Tate, G. H. (1947) Mammals of Eastern Asia. The Macmillan Company, New York, 366 pp. https: // doi. org / 10.5962 / bhl. title. 6397","Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946. British Museum (Natural History), London, 810 pp.","Kim, M. S., Joo, J. S., Oh, S. I, Lee, S. Y., Koh, B. J. & Park, E. C. (2015) Animals of Korea: Mammals. Science and Technology Press, Pyongyang, 211 pp. [in Korean]","Sowerby, A. C. (1923) The naturalist in Manchuria. Tientsin Press Ltd., Tianjin, 508 pp.","Sowerby, A. C. (1933) The rodents and lagomorphs of China. The China Journal, 19, 189 - 207.","Loukashkin, A. S. (1943) On the hares of northern Manchuria. Journal of Mammalogy, 24, 73 - 81. https: // doi. org / 10.2307 / 1374782","Wu, C., Wu, J., Bunch, T. D., Li, Q., Wang, Y. & Zhang, Y. (2005) Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of Lepus in eastern Asia based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Molecular Phylogenetic Evolution, 37, 45 - 61. https: // doi. org / 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2005.05.006","Won, P. H. (1967) Illustrated encyclopedia of fauna and flora of Korea. Fol. 7. Mammals. Ministry of Education, Seoul, 663 pp. [in Korean]","Won, H. K. (1968) The mammals of Korea. Institute of Science Press, Pyeongyang, 408 pp. [in Korean]","Koh, H. S. & Jang, K. H. (2010) Genetic distinctness of the Korean hare, Lepus coreanus (Mammalia, Lagomorpha), revealed by nuclear thyroglobulin gene and mtDNA control region sequences. Biochemical Genetics, 48, 706 - 710. https: // doi. org / 10.1007 / s 10528 - 010 - 9353 - 0"]}

Lepus europaeus (Pallas, 1778) Figure 26, Published as part of Pereira, Alan Deivid, Bazilio, Sergio & Orsi, Mário Luís, 2018, Checklist of medium-sized to large mammals of Campos Gerais National Park, Paraná, Brazil, pp. 785-799 in Check List 14 (5) on page 796, DOI: 10.15560/14.5.785

Tesakov, Alexey S., Titov, Vadim V., Simakova, Alexandra N., Frolov, Pavel D., Syromyatnikova, Elena V., Kurshakov, Sergey V., Volkova, Natalia V., Trikhunkov, Yaroslav I., Sotnikova, Marina V., Kruskop, Sergey V., Zelenkov, Nikita V., Tesakova, Ekaterina M., Palatov, Dmitry M. (2017): Late Miocene (Early Turolian) Vertebrate Faunas And Associated Biotic Record Of The Northern Caucasus: Geology, Taxonomy, Palaeoenvironment, Biochronology. Fossil Imprint 73 (3-4): 383-444, DOI: 10.2478/if-2017-0021, URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/if-2017-0021

Since Sylvilagus bachmani (Lagomorpha: Leporidae) from the Baja California Peninsula and S. mansuetus from San Jose Island, Mexico, display an allopatric distribution and are closely related, their taxonomy is unclear. The phylogenetic relationships among specimens of both species were evaluated using two mitochondrial genes (Cyt b , COI) and the beta-fibrinogen nuclear gene intron 7 (β-fib I7). The genetic analyses revealed that S. mansuetus was included within the S. bachmani clade as the sister-group of S. b. cerrosensis . The genetic distances among S. b. cerrosensis and mansuetus were relatively low (1.3% with Cyt b ), similar to intraspecific distances observed within other species of Sylvilagus . We consider mansuetus to be a subspecies of S. bachmani , and the morphological traits previously used to differentiate the two taxa should be used to distinguish S. b. mansuetus from the other subspecies of S. bachmani .

Sylvilagus bachmani mansuetus Nelson, 1907 Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907: 83. Type locality. ��� San Jos�� Island, Gulf of California, Baja California ��� [Baja California Sur, Mexico]. Range. Only known from the coastal plains in the southwestern part of San Jos�� Island Baja California Sur, Mexico (see Fig. 1)., Published as part of ��lvarez-Casta��eda, Sergio Ticul & Lorenzo, Consuelo, 2016, Genetic evidence supports Sylvilagus mansuetus (Lagomorpha: Leporidae) as a subspecies of S. bachmani, pp. 289-295 in Zootaxa 4196 (2) on page 293, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.4196.2.7, http://zenodo.org/record/168008, {"references":["Nelson, E. W. (1907) Descriptions of new North American rabbits. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 20, 81 - 84."]}

61. Manchurian Hare Lepus mandshuricus French: Lievre de Mandchourie / German: Mandschurei-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Manchuria Taxonomy. Lepus mandshuricus Radde, 1861, “Bureja-Gebirge [= Bureya Mountains],” Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. It has been placed in the genus Lepus, then Caprolagus, later Allolagus, and back again to Lepus. It was formerly recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurus but received species status. A recent genetic analysis suggests that L. mandshuricus has a close phylogenetic relationship with L. yarkandensis but not with L. brachyurus. Melanistic individuals throughout the entire distribution of L. mandshuricus were given the specific designation of L. melanius, but morphological examination and nDNA analysis revealed that L. melainus is a melanistic morph of L. mandshuricus. This species and L. coreanus are parapatric in their distribution in north-eastern Korea and southeastern Heilongjiang but are said to occupy different habitat types. Moreover, L. mandshuricus is sympatric with L. timidus in forests and L. tolai in plains. Lepus tolai tends to replace L. mandshuricus in cleared forest habitats. Monotypic. Distribution. Russian Far East (Amur, Khabarovsk, Primoryie), NE China (NE Inner Mongolia = Nei Mongol, Heilongjiang,Jilin, Liaoning), and perhaps extreme NE Korea. Descriptive notes. Head—body 410-540 mm, tail 50-80 mm, ear 80-120 mm, hindfoot 110-145 mm; weight 1:4.2-6 kg. The Manchurian Hare has soft, long, and thick fur. Dorsal fur is grayish black to blackish brown to rust-brown, and ventral fur is whitish. Chest, flanks, and legs are cinnamon. Ears are ocherous or cinnamon-buff, and neck is dull rust-brown. Tail is blackish brown above and dull white or gray below. The Manchurian Hare has seasonal variation, with pale winter fur and white belly, and some individuals even appear to be ash-gray. Melanistic individuals are common. Habitat. Mainly mixed coniferous and broadleaf forests, particularly forests of tall Mongolian oaks (Quercus mongolica, Fagaceae) and thick undergrowth of Manchurian hazelnuts (Corylus sieboldiana var. mandshurica, Betulaceae), creepers, and vines, at elevations of 300-900 m. Hilly country with cliffs and rock outcrops is preferred. Manchurian Hares avoid open valleys, grassland, and human settlement. Food and Feeding. The diet of the Manchurian Hare includes bark and twigs of willow, linden, maple, wild apple, birch, and elm. Manchurian Haresalso feed on various shrubs, herbs, and fallen fruits. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Manchurian Hare starts in mid-February, and young first appear in May. Littersize is usually 1-2 young but occasionally as large as 4-5 young. Activity patterns. Manchurian Hares are nocturnal but also active at dawn. Resting periods are spent in holes of tree trunks, and forms in open habitat are avoided. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no specific information for this species, but the Manchurian Hare is probably solitary, except during mating. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Manchurian Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas (e.g. Honghe, Liangshui, Huanren Laotudingzi, Baishilazi, and Sanjiang national nature reserves and Xingkaihu National Geopark). Nevertheless, population status is unknown. A threat to the Manchurian Hare is habitat loss due to forest clearing, which could allow invasion of competing Tolai Hares (L. tolaz). Bibliography. Angermann (1966, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Ge Deyan et al. (2012), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Liu Jiang et al. (2011), Loukashkin (1943), Ognev (1966), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008m), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 147, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

62. Korean Hare Lepus coreanus French: Liévre de Corée / German: Korea-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Corea Taxonomy. Lepus coreanus Thomas, 1892, “Soul [= Seoul],” Korea. Formerly, L. coreanus was considered a subspecies of L. sinensis, L. mandshuricus, or L. brachyurus. A phylogenetic study based exclusively on mtDNA considered L. coreanus to be L. timidus, but two other studies based on nDNA and mtDNA showed that L. coreanus is a valid species. Therefore, taxonomic status of L. coreanus still has to be clarified. Species of Lepus from Jilin Province, China, might belong to L. tolai. Monotypic. Distribution. Korean Peninsula and NE China (8 Jilin); perhaps SE Heilungjiang and E Liaoning (NE China). Descriptive notes. Head-body 430-490 mm, tail 60-75 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 108-122 mm; weight c.1-7 kg. The Korean Hare is medium-sized, with dense and heavy fur. Dorsal fur and head are grayish yellow, with brown hair tips. Tail is light brown above and at its tip, butit is white below. Habitat. Lowland and mountainous habitats. A study conducted in South Korea indicated that abundance of Korean Hares was positively associated with percent shrub cover. Some damage to agriculture and cultivated forests has been recorded. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Korean Hare is widespread and common in Korea. There are no published records of population decline, and no threats are known. Despite lack of known risks, research regarding population status, biology, and ecology of the Korean Hare should be conducted because no data are available. Bibliography. Cheng Cheng etal. (2012), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jones & Johnson (1965), Koh Hung-Sun & Jang Kyung-Hee (2010), Koh Hung-Sun etal. (2001), Rhim Shin-Jae & Lee Woo-Shin (2007), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008n), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 147-148, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

19. Common Tapeti Sylvilagus brasiliensis French: Lapin du Brésil / German: Tapeti / Spanish: Conejo tropical Other common names: Forest Rabbit, Tapeti Taxonomy. Lepus brasiliensis Linnaeus, 1758, “in America meridionalis.” Restricted by O. Thomas in 1911 to “Pernambuco,” Brazil. Sylvilagus brasiliensis is closely related to S. varynaensis. Formerly, S. brasiliensis included S. dicei and S. gabbi as subspecies. Subspecies true: has been removed from S. brasiliensis and now belongs to S. gabbi. Taxonomic revision of S. brasiliensis is necessary because some other subspecies might deserve full species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nineteen subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. S.b.brasiliensisLinnaeus,1758—PernambucoandBahiastates(NEBrazil). S.b.andinusThomas,1897—CanarProvince(SCEcuador). S.b.apollinarisThomas,1920—Bogotaregion(CColombia). S.b.capsalisThomas,1913—CajamarcaRegion(NPeru). S.b.caracasensisMondolfi&Méndez,1957—VenezuelanCoastalRange(NCVenezuela). S.b.chillaeAnthony,1923—ElOroProvince(SWEcuador). S.b.chotanusHershkovitz,1938—ImbaburaProvince(NEcuador). S.b.defilippiCornalia,1850—upperAmazonianregionsofColombia,EEcuador,andNWPeru. S.b.fulvescens].A.Allen,1912—CaucaDepartment(SWColombia). S.b.gibsoniThomas,1918—NArgentinafromtheRioParaguay-ParanatoETucuman,Jujuy,andSaltaprovinces,NintoTarijaDepartment(SBolivia). S.b.incaThomas,1913—SEPeru. S.b.kelloggiAnthony,1923—LojaandAzuayprovinces(SEcuador). S.b.meridensisThomas,1904—AndeanParamosinNEColombiaandAndeanParamosandWLlanosinWVenezuela. S.b.minensisThomas,1901—SW&SMinasGerais(SEBrazil). S.b.paraguensisThomas,1901—Paraguay(Chacoregionandadjacenthighlands),MattoGrossoState(WCBrazil),SantaCruzDepartment(EBolivia),CorrientesandMisionesprovinces(NEArgentina). S.b.peruanusHershkovitz,1950—PeruvianAndes. S.b.sanctaemartaeHershkovitz,1950—NColombia. S.b.surdasterThomas,1901—EsmeraldasProvince(NWEcuador). S. b. tapetillus Thomas, 1913 — Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sulstates (SE Brazil). Also present in the Guinanas, N Brazil, and other areas shaded in the map, but subspecies involved not known. Descriptive notes. Head—body 380-420 mm, tail 20-21 mm, ear 40-50 mm, hindfoot 77-80 mm; weight 500-950 g. The Common Tapetiis small, with short to rudimentary tail. It has short hindfeet and short ears. Dorsal fur varies from light gray to almost black. Sides and upper parts of tail are slightly lighter. Ventral fur is whitish, with dark throat patch. Tail is dingy buff below. Habitat. Mostly in disturbed areas, including agricultural areas, and forest edges from sea level to elevations of at least 4500 m. Habitats of the Common Tapeti and the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus) are mutually exclusive in north-western South America. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. The Common Tapeti breeds year-round. Female reproductive activity is negatively correlated with precipitation and positively correlated with monthly low temperatures. Gestation lasts 42—45 days, and 3-9—4-7 litters/year occur in the Andean Paramos. Average litter sizes of 1-2-1-9 are the smallest reported for any species of Sylvilagus. A female Common Tapeti produces less than ten young per year. Young are born in an aboveground nest thatis built of dry grasses and has a central chamber with 3—4 small chambers at the end of a runway system. Young leave the nest at 11-13 days old and are nursed for an average of 20-1 days. Females become sexually active at 9-10 months old; males are sexually active at c.5 months old. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Common Tapeti is widespread and common. No severe population declines have been reported, but no recent population assessmentis available. A population decline was noted in the high mountains of Venezuela after habitat loss. Little is known about distribution of the Common Tapeti in the Amazonas region. The Eastern Cottontail replaces the Common Tapeti in artificial savannas and scrublands that cut through original forests in north-western South America. Predators that follow the Eastern Cottontail might also threaten the Common Tapeti. Besides habitat loss due to deforestation, human settlementis a threat to the Common Tapeti. Impact of tropical deforestation is poorly known. Nevertheless, the Common Tapeti seems to become more common in eastern Amazonas where forest disturbance and fragmentation due to timber extraction in rainforests are increasing. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy of the Common Tapeti,its distribution, and population status. Expanded studies on its biology and ecology are needed because most existing data are from studies conducted in the Paramos of Venezuela. Bibliography. AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008c), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Zavala & Colmenares (2005), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Diersing (1981), Durant (1981, 1983, 1988), Durant & Guevara (2001), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Lorenzo & Cervantes (1995), Mondolfi & Méndez (1957), Ruedas & Salazar-Bravo (2007), Silva et al. (2005), Thomas (1911¢)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 120-121, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

30. Bunyoro Rabbit Poelagus marjorita French: Lapin dAfrique / German: Buschkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Bunyoro Other common names: Uganda Grass Hare Taxonomy. Lepus marjorita St. Leger, 1929, “Near Masindi, Bunyoro [= Bunyuru], Uganda, 4000 ft [1219 m],” Africa. Formerly, P. marjorita was included in the rock hares (Pronolagus) and later in the genus Caprolagus. The genus Poelagus appears to lack diagnostic cranial features. Recent rigorous taxonomic investigations of P. marjorita are missing. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Central African Republic, S South Sudan, C & W Uganda, and NE DR Congo. Descriptive notes. Head-body 400-610 mm, tail 38-70 mm, ear 60-70 mm, hindfoot 65-108 mm; weight 2.3-3.2 kg. The Bunyoro Rabbit is medium-sized and has short ears. Dorsal fur, head, and ears are buffy brown and grizzled with black hairs. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is yellowish buff. A white mid-ventral stripe runs down from chest (20— 30 mm wide) to lower abdomen (40-50 mm wide), extending posteriorly onto inner surfaces of hindlimbs. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short and have brown hairs on inner surfaces. Nuchal patch is rufous; juvenile Bunyoro Rabbits have deep rufous nuchal patches. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are brownish buff. Tail is short and has same color as dorsal fur above and onsides;it is paler below and often has some white hairs. Female and male Bunyoro Rabbits have glandularslits on both sides of their genitalia. Habitat. Primarily dense vegetation in woodland savanna, stony habitats, and hills with short grass. The Bunyoro Rabbit might also live in forests in southern Sudan. Food and Feeding. The Bunyoro Rabbit forages at night on flowers and sprouting grasses. It prefers to forage in pastures that have been grazed heavily by large mammals, newly mown fields, and burned areas with sprouting grasses. Breeding. Newly born Bunyoro Rabbits were recorded in January-March, June, August, and October in Garamba National Park, DR Congo. Juveniles were recorded in January/February, May, and August. These findings suggest that reproduction takes place during most (if not all) months of the year. Gestation is probably c.5 weeks, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Young are born in short burrows, with entrances concealed by grass and soil. At birth, young are blind, covered with sparse short hair, and helpless. Ears of newborns are black and very short. Activity patterns. The Bunyoro Rabbit is primarily nocturnal and rests in a form during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Bunyoro Rabbit is probably solitary when resting in a form. It feeds in small groups consisting of pairs or females with young at night. Rocky habitats are often shared with Rock Hyraxes (Procavia capensis). Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCNRed List. The Bunyoro Rabbit seems to be widespread and does not appear to be in decline, although a recent survey proposes that its distribution is actually smaller than previous accounts have stated. Bunyoro Rabbits occur in several protected areas and are abundant in north-eastern DR Congo and southern Sudan. Unlike previous claims, there are no specimen records from Ruanda, Burundi, Kenya, southern Chad, southern DR Congo, or northern Angola. Little data are available on population densities, distribution, and conservation threats. Although grassland habitat is burned annually or biannually leaving Bunyoro Rabbits vulnerable to predators, burning also promotes growth of vegetation important in their diets. The Bunyoro Rabbit is hunted locally, and some of its habitat is used for cultivation of peanuts and rice. It is possible that no additional protection is required than the existing Garamba National Park and Murchison Falls National Park (Uganda). Bibliography. Collins & Smith (2008), Corbet (1983), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Happold & Wendelen (2006), Hatt (1940), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kingdon (1974, 1997), Setzer (1956), Verheyen & Verschuren (1966)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 125-126, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

10. Annamite Striped Rabbit Nesolagus timminsi French: Lapin dAnnam / German: Annam-Streifenkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo rayado de Annamita Taxonomy. Nesolagus timminsi Averianov, Abramov & Tikhonov, 2000, “Vietnam, Ha Tinh Province, Huong Son District, Son Kim Community, about 10 km south from village Nuoc Sot, 18°22’N, 105°13’E, altitude 200 m.” Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. timminsi and N. netscher: are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. Genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is a considerable genetic distance between the two species comparable with the distance among leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. timminsi and N. netscheri have been isolated for ¢.8 million years. At that time, sea level was ¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagus might have been distributed overthis region. Nesolagus timminsi apparently lives sympatrically with Lepus peguensis. Monotypic. Distribution. N & C Annamite Mts (Laos and Vietnam); it may occur in S Annamite Mts. Descriptive notes. There are no specific measurements available. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has black or dark brown dorsalstripes, a ferruginous rump, and short tail and ears. Externally,it closely resembles the Sumatran Striped Rabbit (N. netscheri). Habitat. Wet evergreen forests that experience little or no dry season. Annamite Striped Rabbits generally occur on seaward facing slopes of the Annamite Mountains. Elevational range is unknown, but they were first collected at elevations of ¢.200 m. Hunters say that Annamite Striped Rabbits are relatively common at higher elevations in the mountains. A number of records come from heavily logged but not completely logged areas. A recent survey using camera traps recorded most Annamite Striped Rabbits in secondary forest. They tended to occur in areas with tall thin trees and a wide variety of plant species in the ground cover. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Annamite Striped Rabbit has a decreasing population trend. It has only recently been discovered. The first evidence of the Annamite Striped Rabbit came from captured individuals offered for sale in a food market in the rural town of Ban Lak, Laos, between December 1995 and February 1996. Annamite Striped Rabbits occur at low densities, in distinct populations, and in a restricted area. Known distribution is based on only c.10 localities. Nothing is known about biology and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit. Threats include habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation from logging, agriculture, and mining and intensive hunting. Although almost all mammals hunted in this region of Laos seem to have some medicinal use, there is no evidence that any medicinal trade demand exists for Annamite Striped Rabbits. They are apparently harvested to feed hunters while in the forests. Heavy hunting pressure might have deleterious effects on extant populations. One problem for the conservation of the Annamite Striped Rabbit might be that most strategies focus on remote high elevational areas, and lowlands are generally degraded by humans and lost to possible management. The Annamite Striped Rabbit inhabits border areas between Laos and Vietnam, and both governments do not actively support any conservation activities for it. Development of management plans and legislation to protect the Annamite Striped Rabbit are recommended. Research on distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Annamite Striped Rabbit are needed to effectively protect it. Such research could change the conservation status of the Annamite Striped Rabbit from Data Deficient to Near Threatened or even Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Bibliography. Abramov et al. (2008), Averianov et al. (2000), Can et al. (2001), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Sur ridge et al. (1999), Woodfin & Bell (2015)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 113-114, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

34. Burmese Hare Lepus peguensis French: Liévre du Pégou / German: Burmesischer-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Birmania Other common names: Siamese Hare Taxonomy. Lepus peguensis Blyth, 1856, “Pegu,” Upper Pegu, Burma (= Myanmar). It was placed as in the genus Caprolagus and subgenus Indolagus. Formerly, L. peguensis included L. hainanus, which received species status. Lepus peguensis needs taxonomic clarification. A third subspecies (siamensis) is under discussion to be a valid species. It has been suggested that L. peguensis is conspecific with L. nigricollis because of its close resemblance to L. n. ruficaudatus. Nevertheless, L. n. ruficaudatus appears to live allopatrically with L. peguensis from eastern India to western Myanmar. A study of dental characteristics concluded that separate species status of L. peguensis was equivocal. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.p.peguensisBlyth,1855—C&SMyanmarfromtheChindwinRivervalleyStoNMalayPeninsula. L. p. vassali Thomas, 1906 — Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and S Vietnam. Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-590 mm, tail 55-84 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 96-110 mm; weight 2.2-5 kg. The Burmese Hare is medium-sized and closely resembles the Indian Hare (L. nigricollis). Dorsal pelage is reddish gray, mixed with black and grayer on rump. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are rather large with distinct black tips. Tail is black above and white below. Feet vary, being white in Burmese specimens and fulvous in Thailand specimens. Habitat. Lowlands, land cleared for crops, and dry wasteland. The Burmese Hare occurs in sandy regions along the coast in Malaya and southern Vietnam, butit lives in forest clearings in lalang grass (Imperata cylindrical, Poaceae) or around hill tribe villages in Thailand. Numbers of Burmese Hares are especially high in grass and shrub vegetation of seasonally exposed large river channels. In Thailand, they live in rain/ flood-fed low-intensity rice fields but avoid irrigated multi-croprice fields. A collection expedition in Thailand in 1940 recorded the Burmese Hare at an elevation of 1300 m on Mount Inthanon. Nevertheless, numerous field surveys have not recorded it above 700 m, so an upperlimit of 1300 m is questionable. Burmese Hares spend the day in forms located under bushes orin tall grass. Food and Feeding. Diet of the Burmese Hare includes grass, bark, and twigs. Breeding. The Burmese Hare might have several litters per year. Litter sizes are 1-7 young (typically 2-4 young). Gestation lasts 35-40 days. Young are born in open grassy areas and are fully furred with eyes open. Activity patterns. The Burmese Hare is crepuscular and nocturnal. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Burmese Hare usually lives alone and is territorial. Individuals become very aggressive during the breeding season, and they fight with forefeet or kick with hindfeet. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Burmese Hare is widespread and common, with an overall stable population. Its distribution probably includes northern and central regions of Laos, because signs ofits presence in the wild and fresh kills in markets have been noted (but only to the genus level). Its distribution in Myanmaris largely speculative, and it might be more restricted there. Habitat of the Burmese Hare is probably expanding due to forest clearing, but it occurs in populationsisolated by forest cover. It is heavily hunted, but this does not seem to be a major threat. Extension of irrigated rice fields destroys habitat in some areas. Habitats in Laos and Vietnam are regularly burned during the dry season (February—May), which might pose a threat to young unable to avoid fire. Recommendations are to clarify taxonomy, distribution, and behavior of the Burmese Hare. Bibliography. Allen & Coolidge (1940), Angermann (2016), Duckworth (1996), Duckworth, Steinmetz & Pattanavibool (2008), Duckworth, Timmins et al. (1994), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1955), Evans et al. (2000), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gyldenstolpe (1917), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kloss (1919), Lekagul & McNeely (1977), Lissovsky (2016), Petter (1961), Pfeffer (1969), Suchentrunk (2004), Van Peenen (1969). Wroughton (1915)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 130, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

40. Cape Hare Lepus capensis French: Lievre du Cap / German: Kaphase / Spanish: Liebre de El Cabo Other common names: Arabian Hare (Middle East), East African Hare (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), North-west African Hare (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri), Sardinian Hare (mediterraneus), South African Hare (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant) Taxonomy. Lepus capensis Linnaeus, 1758, “ad Cap. b. Spei [= Cape of Good Hope],” South Africa. Taxonomystatus of L. capensis throughout its distribution is unclear. As constructed in the past, a single species (capensis sensu lato) inhabits Africa in two separate southern and northern areas. There is no evidence of gene flow between these two areas, and intervening areas are inhabited by other species of Lepus. Therefore, an informal subdivision of capensis into four groups based on their geographical locations (north-western Africa, Middle East, East Africa, and South Africa) is widely accepted and might represent four distinct species. If this is correct, L. capensis will be restricted to the “South African Hare” group, whereas those in the other three groups will have to be renamed. Nevertheless, formal revision of taxa is not possible due to insufficient data. Subspecies belong in four groups: South Africa (capensis, aquilo, carpi, and grant), East Africa (aegyptius, hawkeri, isabellinus, and sinaiticus), Middle East (arabicus), and north-western Africa (atlanticus, mediterraneus, schlumbergeri, and whitakeri). Taxonomic position of the form mediterraneus (the “Sardinian Hare”) is unresolved. Analysis of the mtCR-1 sequence indicated that mediterraneus forms a monophyletic clade with North African species of Lepus, whereas a phylogenetic analysis of mtCR-1 sequences from Tunisian and Egyptian specimens characterized them as monophyletic and separate from L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepus indicated that North African species and L. europaeus belong to L. capensis, supporting a hypothesis to include L. europaeus in L. capensis. In light of this continuing uncertainty regarding taxonomic status of the subspecies mediterraneus and North African species of Lepus, they remain included in L. capensis, and L. europaeus retains its taxonomic status as a distinct species. Moreover, the relationship of L. capensis to L. victoriae is uncertain because in some regions (Kenya and Somalia), specimens appear to have characteristics intermediate between the two species. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the folai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. Because of the widespread distribution and interpopulational variation of L. capensis, as many as 38 forms/subspecies have been described. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L. ¢c. capensis Linnaeus, 1758 — Western Cape Province (South Africa). L.c.aegyptiusDesmarest,1822—Egypt,Sudan,Palestine. L.c.aquiloThomas&Wroughton,1907—SMozambique. L. c. arabicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, Iran, SW Pakistan (Baluchistan), and SW Afghanistan. . ¢. atlanticus de Winton, 1898 — Morocco. ¢. carpi Lundholm, 1955 — NW Namibia. granti Thomas & Schwann, 1904 — Northern Cape Province (South Africa). MDD nop hawker: Thomas, 1901 — W Sudan, Eritrea. isabellinus Cretzschmar, 1826 — Egypt, Sudan,Eritrea. Ean mediterraneus Wagner, 1841 — Sardinia. schlumberger: Remy Saint-Loup, 1894 — NE Morocco. sinaiticus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Egypt, Iraq. S whitakeri Thomas, 1902 — Libya, Niger and Algeria. The Cape Hare occurs in the Mediterranean I of Sardinia and in isolated populations scattered throughout most of the Arabian Peninsula and the Middle East and E to W Himalayas. This species has an extensive range in Africa which is separated in two distinct regions. First, in Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania, and throughout most of the dry savanna regions of C, W & N Africa, including parts of the Sahara Desert. Second, in savanna and semi-desert regions of Namibia, Botswana, S Zimbabwe, SW Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho. Descriptive notes. Head-body 450-550 mm,tail 100-145 mm, ear 110-140 mm, hindfoot 110-138 mm; weight 1.7-2.5 kg. The Cape Hare is medium-sized, with soft pelage. Dorsal fur and head are silvery gray, grizzled with black. Ventral pelage is pure white and long. Flanks become pale buff on lower parts. Lateral profile of head is distinctly angular. Eye rings are white, typically with rufous markings above and below them. Upperlips are pale rufous, and chin and throat are white. The Cape Hare typically has buffy white collar. Ears are relatively long, with inner margins fringed with long white hairs. Ear tips are rounded and fringed with short black hairs, especially on outer surfaces. Nuchal patch is brownish pink. Forelimbs are pale rufous above and white below. Hindlimbs are pale rufous. Soles of all feet have buffy brown hairs. Tail is comparatively long, fluffy, black above and laterally, and below white. Cape Hares show large geographical variation in morphological characteristics. Pelage color varies throughout the distribution. Individuals from arid and semiarid habitats are paler in color than those from more moderate habitats. Ears and hindfeet get longer with increasing habitat aridity. Habitat. Grasslands and open habitats, including Acacia — Brachystegia savanna, Sahel and Sudan savanna, semi-desert, and mountain valleys up to elevations of 2400 m. The Cape Hare is extremely adaptable and lives in many environments. It prefers open-toclosed habitats and avoids bushy habitats. Pastures overgrazed by domestic stock are particularly favored. Cape Hares move into burned areas as soon as grasses begin to sprout. Distribution of the Cape Hare has increased with bush clearing and extensive savanna fires. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Cape Hare prefers shrubs rather than grasses for shelter in summer. In the Namib Desert, it makes short burrows to avoid exposure to the sun. Food and Feeding. Cape Hares are herbivorous and graze on grasses at night. Diets presumably vary according to habitat. Fecal analysis in Kenya revealed that 19% ofthe diet was dicotyledons, 40% grasses, 1% sedge, and 32% stem fibers. Grasses in the diet included Sporobolus sp., Aristida sp., Chloris sp., Cynodon dactylon, Enneapogon sp., and Eragrostis sp (all Poaceae). The study found differences in proportions of grass species eaten at different sites, but seasonal differences, including wet and dry seasons, were small at each site. The Cape Hare is reasonably opportunistic, selecting different grass species according to their availabilities. It is expanding its distribution at the expense of less adaptable species of Lepus because it thrives on overgrazed pastures. Breeding. Reproduction of the Cape Hare varies by location. Near the Equator, males are sexually active and females pregnant throughout the year. Pregnancy rates are 80-100% for most of the year, except in April (wettest month of the year) and June/ July (end of wet season). Females have 6-8 litters/year, with a mean littersize of 1-5, or an average of 11-6 young/year. Mean littersize varies seasonally, probably in response to changes in rainfall and forage (one young in September to 1-9 in January). Litter size also varies by elevation; Cape Hares at higher elevations have small litters (mean of 1-2 young at 1800 m) than those at lower elevations (mean of 1-7 young at 600 m). Activity patterns. Cape Hares are nocturnal. They rest in forms during the day but might feed during the day whenitis overcast. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Home ranges of Cape Hares vary depending on habitat type. They mainly live alone and only occasionally in small groups. In Kenya, only four groups of three Cape Hares were seen out of 800 individuals observed. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cape Hare is widespread and abundant, with a total population greater than 10,000 individuals. In the southern part of its African distribution, a population decline of less than 10% since 1904 has been reported. No population information is available for the northern African region ofits distribution. Population trends of Cape Hares in Arabia are characterized by moderate declines. Current population trends of Cape Hares on islands in the Persian Gulf, specifically Masirah Island and Bahrain, are of concern because it is possible that the form of the Cape Hare living on these islands is a distinct species. The population of the Cape Hare on Sardinia has been declining even though it is characterized as locally common. The Cape Hare has experienced habitat loss on the Arabian Peninsula since the 1950s mainly caused by urbanization, habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, livestock competition, agricultural encroachment, recreational activities, harvest/hunting, and infrastructure development related to tourism. These threats will likely lead to continuing population declines on the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, a loss of habitat due to agricultural practices and hunting poses the greatest threats to Cape Hares. Bibliography. Allen, G.M. (1939), Angermann (2016), Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Boitani et al. (1999), Dixon (1975), Drew et al. (2008), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Ellerman et al. (1953), Flux (1969, 1981a, 1981b), Flux & Angermann (1990), Flux & Flux (1983), Flux & Jarvis (1970), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kryger, Robinson & Bloomer (2004), Lissovsky (2016), Lundholm (1955), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Petter (1959, 1961), Scandura etal. (2007), Stewart (1971c¢)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 132-133, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

43. Desert Hare Lepus tibetanus French: Liévre du désert / German: Wiistenhase / Spanish: Liebre de desierto Taxonomy. Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 1841, “Little Thibet [= Tibet].” Fixed by J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott in 1955 to “Baltistan, Kashmir.” Until the 1930s, L. tibetanus had species status. The first major revision united L. europaeus, L. tolai, and L. tibetanus in a single species. Next, L. tibetanus and L. tolai were placed as subspecies of L. capensis. Then, L. tibetanus was clearly separated from L. tolai, but L. capensis was still used as the species name. Today, the separation between L. tolai and L. tibetanus on the species level are still questioned by taxonomists. Furthermore, no morphological characteristics have been found to separate the tolai-tibetanus-group from L. capensis. It shares some cranial and pelage characteristics with L. oiostolus from the adjacent Tibetan Plateau, in contrast to L. capensis or L. tolai. Evaluation of these characteristics across zones of potential contact between the ten taxon pairs comprising L. capensis (sensu lato) and genetic analyses are necessary before taxonomy of species of Lepus can be resolved. Molecular analysis placed pamirensis back to L. capensis and assigned centrasiaticus to L. tolai. This species is allopatric to parapatric with L. tolai, but they might be sympatric in the Tien Shan Mountains. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Five subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.t.tibetanusWaterhouse,1841—UpperIndusValley,inNEAfghanistan,NPakistan,andNWIndia. L.t.centrasiaticusSatunin,1907—EXinjiang,Gansu,andWInnerMongolia=NeiMongol(NW&NCChina). L.t.craspedotisBlanford,1875—BalochistanProvince(Pakistan). L.t.pamirensisGunther,1875—ETajikistanandSWXinjiang(China). L. t. stoliczkanus Blanford, 1875 — NW Xinjiang (China). Descriptive notes. Head-body 400-480 mm, tail 87-109 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 109-135 mm; weight 1.6-2.5 kg. The Desert Hare is slender and has a relatively small head. Dorsal fur is sandy yellow or drab, tinged with black. Hips are grayish, and outsides of hindlegs and forefeet are white. Ears are wide and have black-brown tips. Tail has black-brown stripes above. The Desert Hare has light eye rings. Ventral fur is yellow to white. The Desert Hare has thick and gray to sandy brown fur in winter. Habitat. Grassland and shrubs on slopes of riverbanks in desert, semi-desert, and steppe habitats from low elevations and perhaps up to subalpine habitats at elevations of 3500-4000 m. Desert Hares use burrows constructed by other animals. Food and Feeding. Diet of the Desert Hare includes herbaceous vegetation, seeds, berries, roots, and twigs. Breeding. Female Desert Hares have up to three litters per year; litters have 3-10 young. Activity patterns. The Desert Hare is most active at dusk, but it can also be active during daytime. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Desert Hare is listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread, but no data are available on its overall population status. Conservation threats are not known. Research is necessary to clarify population status of the Desert Hare and its taxonomic position relative to other species of Lepus. Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Cheng Cheng et al. (2012), China Red List & Johnston (2008b), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951, 1955), Heptner (1934), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Ognev (1966), Petter (1959, 1961), Smith (2008c)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 133-134, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

49. Antelope Jackrabbit Lepus alleni French: Lievre dAllen / German: Antilopenhase / Spanish: Liebre antilope Other common names: Allen's Hare, Allen's Jackrabbit, Blanket Jak, Burro Jack, Jackass Rabbit, Mexican Jackrabbit, Saddle Jack, Wandering Jackrabbit Taxonomy. Lepus alleni Mearns, 1890, “Rillito Station [Pima Co.], Arizona,” USA. A recent molecular phylogenetic study based on mtDNA suggests that L. californicus might have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new lineage. From the original stock (L. callotis), one population wasisolated in western coastal plains (L. allent) and a second isolated population was isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). Taxonomical analysis of cranial characteristics of subspecies revealed no differences. Insular subspecies might not be distinct from mainland subspecies. In southern Arizona, L. alleni and L. californicus occur sympatrically. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.a.alleniMearns,1890—SCArizona(SWUSA)andC&WSonora(NWMexico). L.a.palitansBangs,1900—SSonora,Sinaloa,extremeSWChihuahua,andNWNayarit(WMexico). L. a. tiburonensis Townsend, 1912 — Tiburon I in the Gulf of California, Sonora (NW Mexico). Descriptive notes. Head-body 550-670 mm, tail 48-76 mm, ear 140-170 mm, hindfoot 127-150 mm; weight 2:7.4-5 kg. The Antelope Jackrabbit has exceptionally large, whitish ears that are nearly naked except for long fringes of white hair on edges. Head has whitish and fulvous tint, mixed with black. Eye rings are white. Dorsal pelage is yellowish brown, mixed with black. Nape is plumbeous. Sides, hips, and rump are pale gray. Ventral pelage, chin, and throat are white. Chest is fulvous, and this color extends backward on lower part of neck. Tail is white and lined above with plumbeous black that extends forward upon rump. Pelage is darker in winter than summer. Subspecies tiburonensis tends to be smaller, with a total length of 500-610 mm. Ears might be more than 210 mm long and more than 100 mm wide, which adds ¢.25% to total surface area of body. Ears are used to dissipate heat in desert climates. Body temperature of the Antelope Jackrabbit averages 37-9°C at ambient temperatures of 3°-25°C. At higher ambient temperatures, body temperature increases as ambient temperature increases and reaches 40-3°C at an ambient temperature of 39°C. Rectal glands secrete orange colored, with a strong musky odor. Their function is unknown, but an individual probably leaves a record in its shelter form or wherever it pauses to sit. Habitat. Various habitats from sea level (Sonora, Mexico) to elevations of c.1500 m (southern Arizona). In Arizona, Antelope Jackrabbits favored habitats on slopes at moderate elevations where grasses, mesquites (Prosopis), and catclaws (Acacia), both Fabaceae, are abundant. They also live in desert habitat with little grass, hilly country among scattered oaks (Quercus, Fagaceae) and junipers (Juniperus, Cupressaceae), and stabilized sand dunes. In Mexico, Antelope Jackrabbits occur in low and open grasslands, open grassy foothill with patches of low bushes, and arid and desert plains. Shelter forms include backing up under clumps of vegetation, a sitting place beside a cactus or mesquite trunk with no shade and no digging or scratching having been made, or a dug out depression in the soil. Antelope Jackrabbits always seek shade in shelter forms during hot seasons. Where the Antelope Jackrabbit and the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) occur sympatrically, they often sit together under the same bush or runaway side by side. The Antelope Jackrabbit is more numerous on grassy plains at high elevations; the Black-tailed Jackrabbit is more numerous in mesquite along valley bottoms and on barren chaparral desert. Food and Feeding. The Antelope Jackrabbit feeds primarily on green grass (45%), mesquite (Prosopis juliflora, 36%), and succulent cacti (7-8%). Of all cacti species available to it, it forages most on pulps and pods of Opuntia engelmanni (Cactaceae). Diet varies with alternating dry and rainy seasons: cacti are increasingly consumed during dry seasons, and grasses are favored after the rainy seasons. The Antelope Jackrabbit seeks minerals by digging and biting soil. There is no evidence that the Antelope Jackrabbit requires free water. Insulation and reflectance of pelage reduce water loss. Seeking shade reduces heat load and waterloss. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Antelope Jackrabbit extends from late December through September, with pronounced peaks in spring and mid-summer. Mating is promiscuous. Males fight by rearing up on hindfeet and hitting each other vigorously and with great rapidity for several seconds. The silent fight usually ends with the victor pursuing the vanquished. Two copulations in the field have been observed. In one instance, a preceding chase and vigorous combat accompanied by continuous growling took place, and in the other instance, the female chased the male a few meters, uttering a growl or grunt after copulation. Gestation is c.6 weeks. Litters average 1-9 young (range 1-6 young). A female has 3—4 litters/year. Percentages of females pregnant and litter size correlate with rainfall. The female gives birth to precocial young in a nest below ground and lined with her fur. Neonates do not show characteristic white rumps, but one 19day-old young had a white rump. The mother returns at night to nurse her young. Length of parental care is short, and young become independent in a matter of days. Young are slightly darker than adults. Breeding age of Antelope Jackrabbits is attained during the second year of life under favorable conditions. Adult sex composition in one population was 47-5% males and 52-5% females. Activity patterns. The Antelope Jackrabbit is nocturnal and crepuscular, but diurnal activity is commonly recorded. Shelter forms are used for resting during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Antelope Jackrabbit might be the fastest species of Lepus, with running speeds of up to 72 km/h. It leaps over bushes higher than 1 m and fences higher than 1-5 m with little change in stride. One leap of 7 m was recorded. When Antelope Jackrabbits start to run, they make 4-5 long hops on their hindlegs alone, like a kangaroo, and then revert to usual locomotion. When threatened by a predator, they flash their white areas on their rumps and sides by pulling up skin by special muscles. Where food and shelter are separated, daily movements occur. Trips of 16 km from desert to feed on alfalfa have been recorded. Average home range size is 642-8 ha. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The insular subspecies tiburonensis is endemic and rare and is currently granted “special protection” under Mexican Official Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001 because it is an insular and endemic species. The Antelope Jackrabbit is widespread, with a stable population. Declines in southern Arizona have been reported. The Antelope Jackrabbit has almost disappeared due to rabbit plague near Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, although it was once rather common. Expanding agriculture and resulting habitat alteration and overgrazing by livestock are threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit. Overgrazing by livestock favors the Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Additional threats to the Antelope Jackrabbit are hunting, human perturbations, predation by introduced species, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. Bibliography. Allen (1906a), AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008h), Angermann (2016), Armstrong & Jones (1971), Best & Henry (1993a), Brown & Krausman (2003), Burt (1938), Chapman et al. (1983), Claire (1978), Dawson & Schmidt-Nielsen (1966), Dice & Blossom (1937), Dixon et al. (1983), Doutt (1934), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Garland (1983), Ghobrial & Nour (1975), Goldman (1951), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Howell (1944), Huey (1942), Lange (1960), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1890), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010), Schmidt-Nielsen et al. (1965), Simmons (1966), Swarth (1929), Swihart (1986), Vorhies (1921)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 139, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

3b. Ethiopian Hare Lepus fagani French: Liévre d'Ethiopie / German: Athiopischer Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Etiopia Taxonomy. Lepus fagani Thomas, 1903, “Zegi, Lake Tsana [= Tana] 4000 feet [1219 m],” Ethiopia. Taxonomic status of Lepus fagani is uncertain. Formerly, it was reconsidered as a subspecies of L. victoriae or L. capensis, but because ofits unusually uniform morphological characteristics throughoutits distribution,its species status has been maintained since 1987. It is closely related to L. saxatilis and L. victoriae. This speciesis either allopatric or parapatric with L. victoriae. Because L. fagani is geographically isolated in Ethiopian mountains north of the Rift Valley from populations of L. victoriae in lowlands, it may have evolved into a highland allospecies. Monotypic. Distribution. N & W highlands of Ethiopia (N of the Rift Valley); maybe also adjacent E South Sudan and NW Kenya. Descriptive notes. Head-body 450-540 mm, tail 50-82 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 90-110 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Ethiopian Hare is large, with dense and rather coarse fur. Dorsal fur is brownish buff and finely grizzled with black; ventral fur is white and fluffy. Flanks are buff. Forelimbs are cinnamon brown, and hindlimbs brownish buff above and white below. Head is darker than dorsal pelage and its crown blacker. Chin and throat are white. Ears are short compared to other Ethiopian Lepus such as the Abyssinian Hare (L. habessinicus) and the Ethiopian Highland Hare (L. starcki). Ears of the Ethiopian Hare are buff, with narrow black rim around inner surfaces oftips. Nuchal patch is cinnamon-ginger and extends onto sides of neck. Tail is medium-sized and fluffy. It is black above, buff on sides, and buffy white below. Habitat. Steppes, grasslands, and scrub and forest margins including wet grasslands with scattered thickets and bushy cultivated areas. The Ethiopian Hare is considered to be an Afro-alpine/Afro-montane species becauseit inhabits elevations of 500-2500 m. Its habitatis similar to that of the African Savanna Hare (L. victoria). Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. There is no information available forthis species. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Research is needed to understand biology, ecology, and conservation status of the Ethiopian Hare. Bibliography. Azzaroli-Puccetti (1987a, 1987b), Boitani et al. (1999), Flux & Angermann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith & Johnston (2008b), Yalden et al. (1986)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 130, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

11. Brush Rabbit Sylvilagus bachmani French: Lapin de Bachman / German: Strauchkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de matorral Other common names: Riparian Brush Rabbit Taxonomy. Lepus bachmani Waterhouse, 1839, “between Monterey and Santa Barbara.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to “San Luis Obispo,” California, USA. Previously, S. bachmani and Brachylagus idahoensis were in the genus Microlagus. Insular S. mansuetus occurring only on San Jose Island (Baja California) derived from S. bachmani. Sylvilagus bachmani and S. mansuetus are the only species of Sylvilagus known to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepus and Romerolagus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Sylvilagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Firstly, the original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. Secondly, the extent of variation has not been studied yet. Thus, researchers cannot understand if this exact feature is some important diagostic mark or just an individual or age-specific variation. Moreover, it has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Thirteen subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. S.b.bachmaniWaterhouse,1839—SpartofcoastalCWCalifornia(SWUSA). S.b.cerrosensisJ.A.Allen,1898—CedrosI,BajaCalifornia(NWMexico). S.b.cinerascensJ.A.Allen,1890—SWCalifornia(SWUSA). S.b.exiguusNelson,1907—BajaCaliforniaexcepttheN(NWMexico). S.b.howelliHuey,1927—NEBajaCalifornia(NWMexico). S.b.macrorhinusOrr,1935—NpartofCWCalifornia(SWUSA). S.b.mariposaeGrinnell&Storer,1916—EpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA). S.b.peninsularisJ.A.Allen,1898—BajaCaliforniaSur(NWMexico). S.b.ripariusOrr,1935—WpartofCCalifornia(SWUSA). S.b.rosaphagusHuey,1940—NWBajaCalifornia(NWMexico). S.b.tehamaeOrr,1935—SWOregon,andNCCalifornia(WUSA). S.b.ubericolorMiller,1899—WOregon(SoftheColumbiaRiver)andNWCalifornia(WUSA). S. b. virgulti Dice, 1926 — S part of inland CW California. Descriptive notes. Head-body 300-370 mm, tail 10-30 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 71-86 mm; weight 511-915 g. The Brush Rabbitis one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is dark brown to gray-brown; ventral fur is whitish. Hindlegs are short, and hindfeet are slender. Ears are small, slightly pointed, and sparsely haired inside. Tail is small, dark above, and white below. Sexual dimorphism exists with females being 1-2-1% larger than males. Fetal sex ratio is essentially 1:1, but adult sex ratios are 80-8-128 males:100 females. Habitat. Dense brushy cover from sea level to elevations of at least 2070 m. The Brush Rabbit is confined to brushy habitat, as its common name implies. Food and Feeding. Brush Rabbits feed mainly on grasses, and diets vary according to season and region. In September, they feed on spike rush (Eleocharis palustris, Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) such as creeping eragrostis (Eragrostis hypnoides), foxtail grass (Hordeum murinum), soft chess grass (Bromus hordeaceus), and oats (Avena fatua). Summer diets include wild roses (Rosa californica, Rosaceae), Mexican tea (Chenopodium ambrosioides, Amaranthaceae), and several plants in the daisy family such as sow thistle (Sonchus asper), bull thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum), and Baccharis douglasii; rush (Juncus sp., Juncaceae); and berries (Rubus sp., Rosaceae). In autumn, roots of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), stems and leaves of blackberry (R. vitifolia), and berries (Rubus sp.) also are eaten. In winter, green clover (Trifolium involucratum, Fabaceae) is most preferred, along with new available green grass. Brush Rabbits rarely feed in the open on the mainland, but they prefer to feed in the open and rarely underbrush on Ano Nuevo Island. Before venturing into the open to feed, individuals remain for a while just inside dense brushy cover. After entering an open area next to brushy cover, individuals remain motionless for some time, apparently watching for signs of danger. Several individuals might simultaneously feed in the same area. They rise up on their hindfeet to feed on newly grown tips of plants. Breeding. Breeding season of the Brush Rabbit varies from north to south. In California, it lasts from December to May or possibly June, but in Oregon, it lasts from February to August. Gestation lasts 24-30 days, averaging 27 days. Young are born with fine thin hair, do not open their eyes for c.10 days, and suffer postpartum weight loss. Females give birth in nests with cavities of 7.5-15 cm. Nests are lined mainly with hairs from mothers and small amounts of dried grass; nests are closed with plugs constructed of grasses. Young are nursed at night, grow rapidly, and stay in their nests for c.2 weeks. The Brush Rabbit is believed to breed shortly after giving birth, and different females in a population might breed at the same time. Brush Rabbits might have three litters per year in California, but four litters might be possible. Litter size also varies among regions; mean litter size is three in Oregon, 3-5 in northern and central California, and four in west-central California. Juveniles reach maturity at 4-5 monthsold, but it is thought that they reproduce for the first time in reproductive seasons following their births. In Oregon, a female Brush Rabbit produces an average of 15 young/ year in 5-3 litters. Brush Rabbits may not be as fecund as other species of Sylvilagus. Activity patterns. Brush Rabbits are basically crepuscular, being most active between sunset and 02:00 h and again from ¢.06:00 h to 10:30 h. Some reports suggest that most activity occurs in the morning. Individuals are least active between 11:00 h and 16:00 h. They spend considerable time sunning, usually in the mornings or afternoons. After feeding, Brush Rabbits return to a form for grooming and basking in the sun. They might climb trees for resting. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Brush Rabbit occasionally uses burrows but does not dig its own. Holes and forms in brush also are used. Forms are cleared places, and a maze of extensively used runways connects forms. Runways of voles (Microtus) and harvest mice (Reithrodontomys) were used in June/July in California, and “huts” of Wood Rats (Neotomafuscipes macrotis) also were used. In Oregon, Brush Rabbits live in disjunct patches of brambles, and sizes and shapes of home ranges conform to sizes and shapes of bramble patches. Brush Rabbits did not permanently occupy patches smaller than 460 m?. Home ranges were less than 2000 m? and depended on uniformity of habitat. Males had larger home ranges than females, and juvenile males had larger home ranges than adult males. Home range sizes of reintroduced individuals were similar among males and females and were larger in the breeding season than during nonbreeding. Thumping the ground with hindfeet often occurs just after individuals are frightened; some thumpfor several minutes before stopping. Brush Rabbits emit squeals and cries as vocalization. Young have been reported to squeal. Minimum distance that individuals can approach one another without resulting in a chase is 0-3-7-5 m—lower distances reported forjuveniles. Nose sniffing and touching often precede a chase. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Brush Rabbit is abundant throughout most ofits distribution, and most populations do not appear to be experiencing significant declines. It is a game species in Oregon and California but is hunted little. The subspecies riparius living in the San Joaquin Valley, California, has been listed as endangered by the State of California and the US Fish and Wildlife Service due to decline caused by habitat degradation, wildfires, and flooding. Major threats to the Brush Rabbit are hunting for food and expansion of human settlements, but extent and severity of these threats have not been quantified. Bibliography. AMCELA, Romero, Rangel & Williams (2008), Angermann (2016), Cervantes, Vazquez & Colmenares (2005), Chapman (1971a, 1971b, 1974), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Harman (1972), Connell (1954), Davis (1936), Dice (1926), Gander (1929), Hall (1951, 1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Kelt et al. (2014), Lissovsky (2016), Mossman (1955), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940, 1942), Pearson (1959a), Shields (1960), Verts (1967)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 114-115, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

9. Sumatran Striped Rabbit Nesolagus netscheri French: Lapin de Sumatra / German: Sumatra-Streifenkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo rayado de Sumatra Other common names: Sumatran Rabbit, Sumatran Short-eared Rabbit Taxonomy. Lepus netscheri Schlegel, 1880, “Sumatra: Padang-Padjang...about 2000 feet [= Padangpanjang, Sumatera Barat, Indonesia; ca. 610 m].” This species was first described as a species of Lepus but was soon given a separate genus. Its relationship with other leporidsis distinct, and the genus is regarded as being a primitive form. Analysis of 30 morphological characters has shown that N. netscher: and N. timminsi are morphologically similar, but there are significant differences in cranial morphometrics. A genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that there is considerable genetic distance between the two species, compatible with the distance between leporid genera. Moreover, results suggest that N. netscheri and N. timminsi have been isolated for c.8 million years in the Pliocene. At that time, sea level was c¢.150 m lower than today, connecting Sumatra, Java, and Borneo to the Asian mainland, and ancestral Nesolagus might have been distributed over this region. Monotypic. Distribution. W Sumatra (Barisan Mts). Descriptive notes. Head-body 370-420 mm, tail 17 mm, ear 30-50 mm, hindfoot 67-87 mm. No specific data are available for body weight but probably c.1-5 kg. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has very short ears. Fur has conspicuous wide black or dark brown stripes on a yellowish gray background that becomes rusty brown toward the rear. Ventral fur, chin, and insides of legs are whitish. Ears are black, and when folded forward, they only reach the eyes. Head is broad, muzzle short, and legs are short. Tail is extremely short, contains only twelve bones compared to 19-24 in other leporids, and is normally notvisible. Furis soft and short. Color is apparently variable among individuals, and stripes might be absent in front or much reduced. Habitat. Montane forests at elevations of 600-1900 m on rich volcanic soil, and occasionally also primary/selectively logged lowland forest. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit has only been recorded twice in lowland forests below 600 m. Food and Feeding. Diet of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit includes plants from the forest understory such as Cyrtandra (Gesneriaceae). Captive individuals fed only at night. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is completely nocturnal and hides in dark places at bases oftrees, in burrows, or in holes in the ground during the daytime. [t probably uses burrows made by other animals because captive individuals do not dig. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Captive Sumatran Striped Rabbits were slow moving and spent the day nearly motionless. Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Sumatran Striped Rabbit is endemic to Indonesia and apparently the rarest lagomorph. Historically,its distribution has been described as extending from southern Sumatra to Aceh along the Barisan Mountains, but no recent records have been made outside western Sumatra even though a numberof surveys and camera trappings have been conducted across the island. Recent sightings and photographs taken in the Bukit Barisan Selatan and Kerinci-Seblat national parks suggest that the two parks serve as current refugia for the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Considering that it is only active at night and lives in remote inaccessible habitat, it might not be surprising that local people had no name for it when it was discovered. Detailed surveys for other rare species on the island such as the Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) or the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have rarely encountered Sumatran Striped Rabbits, so they seem to be remarkably rare. Little is known about the biology, ecology, status, or distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Only a dozen museum specimens collected between 1880 and 1916 exist. Since these collections were made, there has been only one confirmed sighting in 1972 and two photographic records of two different individuals taken by automatic camera traps in 1998. A few additional sightings and photographs from camera traps have been reported since 1998. Major threats to the Sumatran Striped Rabbit are deforestation, human encroachment, and poaching in many of Sumatra’s protected areas. Survival of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit depends on continued existence of their mountain forest habitat. Twenty-five years ago, recommendations highlighted urgent need for widespread studies of biology, ecology, status, and distribution of the Sumatran Striped Rabbit, but no funds have been provided to start these studies. Spotlighting along montane forest roads and camera trapping might be appropriate techniques for targeted ecological research on the Sumatran Striped Rabbit. Bibliography. Averianov et al. (2000), Dinets (2010), Flux (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jacobson (1921), McCarthy, Fuller et al. (2012), McCarthy, Holden & Martyr (2015), McNeely (1981), Meijaard & Sugardijito (2008), Surridge et al. (1999)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 113, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

63. Chinese Hare Lepus sinensis French: Lievre de Chine / German: China-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de China Taxonomy. Lepus sinensis Gray, 1832, “China.” Restricted by G. M. Allen in 1938 to “more orless in the region of Canton,” Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China. It has been placed in the genus Caprolagus and allied with L. hainanus and L. brachywrus. Formerly, L. sinensisincluded L. coreanus as a subspecies. All these relationships have not been supported by genetic analysis. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few exterior characteristics and on a small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.s.sinensisGray,1832—SEChinaSoftheYangtzeRiver. L.s.formosusThomas,1908—Taiwan. L. s. Province (yuenshanensis China). Shih, 1930 — Hunan Taxonomic status of the Chinese Hare in NE Vietnam has to be determined. Descriptive notes. Head-body 350-450 mm, tail 40-57 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 81-111 mm; weight 1.1-9 kg. The Chinese Hare is small, with short ears and short, straight, and coarse hair. Its general appearance is rather uniform butrich in color. Dorsal, head, and chest furis chestnut and rufous. Ventral pelage is paler, and tail is brown. Ears have black triangular tips. Pelage color varies seasonally, with yellowish tone in winter. Habitat. Edges of grassland habitats and scrubby vegetation in hills but not in rice fields. In Taiwan, Chinese Hares are a minor pest of forestry, and they occur in bamboo habitats up to elevations of 4000-5000 m. Food and Feeding. Diet of the Chinese Hare consists ofleafy vegetation, green shoots, and twigs. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Chinese Hare occurs in April-August. Females give birth in burrows. Young are precocial, and littersize averages three young. Activity patterns. The Chinese Hare is nocturnal but can also be active during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Chinese Hares use burrows made by other animals, and they piles fecal pellets outside entrances. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Chinese Hare is also listed as least concern on the Chinese Red List. It is widespread and occurs in protected areas; however, more data are needed to determine population status and current distribution. It is hunted locally for subsistence and sold in markets. Increasing agriculture may isolate populations of Chinese Hares. Populations in Vietnam are thought to be very small, with last confirmed records from the 1990s. Recent surveys did not find Chinese Hares in Vietnam. Major threats to Chinese Hares in Vietnam are habitat loss and hunting. Bibliography. Allen (1938), Angermann (2016), Corbet (1978), Dao Van Tien (1978), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (20080), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 148, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

7. Riverine Rabbit Bunolagus monticularis French: Lapin des Bochimans / German: Buschmannhase / Spanish: Conejo de ribera Other common names: Bushman Hare Taxonomy. Lepus monticularis Thomas, 1903, “Deelfontain, Cape Colony,” South Africa. This species is monotypic. Distribution. C Karoo region in South Africa (around Victoria West, Beaufort West, and Fraserburg, in Northern Cape and Western Cape provinces). Descriptive notes. Head-body 340-470 mm, tail 70-108 mm, ear 110-120 mm, hindfoot 90-120 mm; weight 1.1-5 kg. The Riverine Rabbit is small and dark, with relatively long broad ears. Ear tips are rounded and bordered by short black hairs on outer surfaces. Pelage is soft and fluffy. Dorsal fur is grizzled blackish brown, and ventral pelage is white. Characteristic eye rings are pale, and thin dark stripes run along lowerjaws from near the mouth to bases of ears. Lower flanks, limbs, and nuchal patch are rufous. Soles of feet are covered with thick dense hairs. Tail is medium-sized, dark brown with long fluffy hairs. Habitat. Thick riverine vegetation along seasonalrivers, dominated by Salsola glabrescens, Amaranthaceae (34-8%) and Lycium spp., Solanaceae (112%). Other important species in the habitat of the Riverine Rabbit include Pteronia eythrochaeta, Asteraceae (7:9%); Osteospermum spinescens, Asteraceae (5-3%); Kochia pubescens, Amaranthaceae (6:5%); and Galenia procumbens, Aizoacae (4%). Only a small part of riparian vegetation consists of grasses, and most plants are dicotyledons. Food and Feeding. The Riverine Rabbit browses on flowers and leaves of dicotyledons, such as P. erythrochaeta, K. pubescens, S. glabrescens, Rosenia humilis, and species of Mesembryanthemaceae. Grasses are included in the diet when available during the wet season. Breeding. Reproduction of the Riverine Rabbit takes place in August-May during the warm season. It has one litter per year, and litter size usually is one and sometimes two young. Females might have a postpartum estrus. Gestation lasts 35-36 days. Young are born in a nest made of maternal fur and grass in a burrow. Lengths of burrow are 20-30 cm, with a nest chamber (12-17 cm wide) at the end. Young weight c.40 g at birth, are blind, and lack fur. Riverine Rabbits close their burrow entrances with soil and twigs when not in use. Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but the Riverine Rabbit is no doubt nocturnal. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Riverine Rabbit lives alone and has a polygamous mating system. Average home range is 20-9 ha for males and 12-9 ha for females. There is a low degree of intrasexual home range overlap. Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Riverine Rabbit waslisted as endangered in the 1986 South African National Red Data Book. It occurs only in a small area of ¢.86 km? In historic times,its distribution included riverine vegetation in districts of Sutherland and Calvinia (c.136 km?), but extensive surveys suggest that it has disappeared from these areas. Current population is fragmented and declining and estimated at less than 250 breeding pairs. None of the ten subpopulations is estimated at more than 50 individuals. Moreover, these subpopulations seem to be isolated from each other by anthropogenic barriers, and dispersal of individuals among them is impossible. In the past 70 years, there has been a rapid decline of the population by more than 60% due to a loss of 50-60% of suitable habitat. Habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation (past) and livestock farming (ongoing). Other threats to the Riverine Rabbit include hunting for sport and by farm workers and accidental mortality in traps set for pests on farmlands. Moreover, reduction of Black-backed Jackals (Canis mesomelas) has resulted in an increase of Wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) and Caracals (Caracal caracal)—main predators of the Riverine Rabbit. Population decline has been arrested due to a decrease in cultivation and public awareness and establishment of conservation areas. An overall population decline of 10% or more is predicted to continue through 2022. Recommendations are to conduct further research on biology and ecology of the Volcano Rabbit, establish management plans for wild populations and their habitats, study limiting factors, increase public awareness, and start a captive breeding program. Bibliography. Duthie (1989), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Duthie et al. (1989), Happold (2013c), Robinson (1981), South African Mammal CAMP Workshop (2013)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 112, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

Family LEPORIDAE (HARES AND RABBITS) • Small to medium-sized lagomorphs with short fluffy tails, soft thick pelage, and large eyes; ears project upward; hindlimbs longer than forelimbs. • 23-68 cm. • Holarctic, Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Neotropical Regions. • Forests, shrubby areas, grasslands, deserts, tundra, alpine slopes, and agricultural landscapes up to 5400 m. • 11 genera, 63 species, 269 taxa. • 2 species Critically Endangered; 7 species Endangered; b species Vulnerable; no species Extinct since 1600., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 107, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

21. Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit Sylvilagus varynaensis French: Lapin du Venezuela / German: Venezuela-Baumschwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Venezuela Other common names: Barinas Wild Rabbit Taxonomy. Sylvilagus varynaensis Durant & Guevara, 2001, “Fundo Millano (8E46’LLN and 69E56’LW), 146 m elevation, 18 km NE of the town of Sabaneta, Distrito Obispos, state of Barinas,” Venezuela. This species probably lives sympatrically with S. brasiliensis and S. floridanus. Monotypic. Distribution. Lowlands of the Barinas, Portuguesa, and Guarico states (CE Venezuela). Descriptive notes. Head—body 420-450 mm, tail 21-27 mm, ear 5864 mm, hindfoot 83-89 mm; weight 1.5-1.8 kg. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit has buffy dorsal fur, bordered with black. Nuchal patch is reddish. Eye rings are cotton-white. Outer surfaces of ears are light buff. Ventral pelage is whitish; gular patch is reddish cinnamon. Tail is reddish cinnamon above and reddish buff below. Female Venezuelan Lowland Rabbits are larger than males. Habitat. Low shrubby, herbaceous savanna called “Escobillal,” consisting of Sida spp. and Malvastrum spp. (both Malvaceae). Savanna adjoins tropical dry forests. Food and Feeding. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit feeds primarily on Sida spp. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbitlasts for ¢.270 days, with a peak in September-December. Gestation is c¢.35 days, and litter size averages 2-6 young/female. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. The Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit is a recently described species endemic to Venezuela, and little data are available on its distribution, population status, threats, and conservations status. It is only known from a few localities: Fundo Millano 18 km north-east of the town of Sabaneta, the type locality in Barinas, Chorrosco Bajo in Barinas 112 km east of type locality, Hato Cantaclaro 15 km north of the town of Santa Rosa, Hacienda Las Mercedes in Portuguesa 25 km west of the city of Guanare, and Finca Las Lajitas in Guarico 5 km north-west of the town of San Rafael de Orituco. Distribution of the Venezuelan Lowland Rabbit may be more extensive than what is currently known. Research is needed to clarify its distribution, followed by establishment of management plans and conservation areas. Threats are likely similar to those faced by other species of Sylvilagus in Venezuela, such as deforestation, conversion of land to agriculture, hunting, predation by feral dogs, and competition with livestock. Bibliography. Durant & Guevara (2000, 2001, 2008), Hoffmann & Smith (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 121-122, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

50. White-sided Jackrabbit Lepus callotis French: Lievre du Mexique / German: \Weil3flankenhase / Spanish: Liebre de flancos blancos Other common names: Beautiful-eared Jackrabbit, Gaillard Jackrabbit, Snow Sides Taxonomy. Lepus callotis Wagler, 1830, “Mexico.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1909 to the “southern end of the Mexican Tableland.” Morphological characteristics showed only partial separation between Mexican subspecies of L. callotis and L. californicus, whereas nearly complete separation between L. callotis and L. flavigularis was apparent. A recent molecular phylogenetic study supports another theory suggesting that L. californicus might have been isolated in Mexico and diverged into a new linage. From original stock (L. callotis), one population was isolated in western coastal plains (L. allen?) and a second population became isolated in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (L. flavigularis). As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Distribution of L. callotis is allopatric with L. alleni to which it is probably related, parapatric with L. flavigularis, and sympatric with Sylvilagus cunicularius. This species and L. californicus are only sympatric in marginal habitats because they typically occupy different habitat types. Two subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.c.callotisWagler,1830—CMexico(continuousdistributionfromEDurango,SoftheRioNazas,toNGuerreroandNWOaxaca). L. c. gaillardi Mearns, 1896 — SW USA (extreme SW New Mexico) and discontinuously in NC Mexico (NW Chihuaha, SC Chihuahua, and NC Durango N of the Rio Nazas). Descriptive notes. Head—body 430-600 mm, tail 47-92 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 118-141 mm; weight 1.5-3.2 kg. The White-sided Jackrabbit is medium-sized, with relatively short hindfeet and long ears. Dorsal pelage is pale ocherous cinnamon, mixed with black. Sides, rump, thighs, limbs, and ventral fur are white. Rump is divided by black medial line. Gular patch is bufty, becoming ocherous on fronts of shoulders and sides of neck. Head is cream-buff, mixed with black, and eye rings are whitish. Nape is ocherous buff. Ears are scantily covered with short hairs but are almost bare at their concave surfaces. Tail is white below and black above. Female White-sided Jackrabbits are larger and heavier than males. Geographical variation in pelage color exists, with paler individuals in Chihuahua. The two subspecies also vary in pelage color: callotis has blackish tint and black nape patch, and gaillardi has pale buff tint and brown nape. White-sided Jackrabbits molt twice a year. Habitat. Grassy open plains with little shrub cover and desert-grassland of tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica, Poaceae). White-sided Jackrabbits avoid hilly areas. A study showed that 97-1% of occupied habitat was grassland, and remaining non-grass habitat was adjacent to large expenses of grassland habitat. The White-sided Jackrabbitis an animal of open grassland, whereas the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (L. californicus) inhabits vegetation where forbs and shrubs are dominant, so overgrazing and grassland deterioration favorsthe latter species and reducesdistribution of the former. White-sidedJackrabbits occur at elevations of 1350-2100 m in north-western Chihuahua, ¢.2550 m in northern Puebla, and ¢.750 m in Morelos. Food and Feeding. Diets of White-sided Jackrabbits typically contain more than 99% grass. Plants eaten were true grasses (Poaceae) such as buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides), tobosa grass, wolftail (Lycurus sp.), blue grama (B. gracilis), and vine mesquite (Panicum obtusum) and sedge nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus, Cyperaceae), ring muhly (Muhlenbergia torreyi), and fiddleneck (Amsinckia sp., Boraginaceae), woolly Indian wheat (Plantago purshii, Plantaginaceae), and Wright buckwheat (Eriogonum wrightii, Polygonaceae). The White-sided Jackrabbit uses its forepaws to excavate bulbous tubers of young nutgrass (C. rotundus) in the dry season. Breeding. Reproductive season of the White-sidedJackrabbit minimally lasts from mid-April to mid-August but may extend from mid-March until mid-October. Litters have 1-4 young, with an average of 2-2 young. Females can produce at least three litters per year. Newborns have soft and woolly fur and are typically born in burrows. Activity patterns. Most activity of the White-sided Jackrabbit occurred between 22:00 h and 05:00 h in New Mexico, whereas it was usually seen in the early morning or at dusk in Zacatecas, Mexico. Cloud cover, precipitation, and wind limited activities, but temperature had little effect. Movements, Home range and Social organization. When predators alarm Whitesided Jackrabbits, they alternately flash their white sides while running away or leap straight upward while extending their hindlegs and flashing their white sides. They construct and use shelter forms that are predominantly located in dense stands of clumped tabosa grass. Occasionally but rarely, underground shelters are used. Home ranges of White-sided Jackrabbits overlap, and individuals will move at least 1-6 km to feed. White-sided Jackrabbits usually occur in male-female pairs. This pair bond is most evident during the reproductive season. The male defends the pair from intruding males. It is suggested that pair bonding keeps sexes together during the breeding season because densities are low. White-sided Jackrabbits use three types of vocalization. One is an alarm or fear reaction and consists of a high-pitched scream. The second are harsh grunts produced by the male of a pair to chase away an intruding male. The third is a trilling grunt emitted by an animal of unknown sex during a sexual chase. Status and Conservation. Classified as Near Threatened on The IUCN Red List. The White-sided Jackrabbit is widespread but has been reported as rare throughoutits distribution. Information is lacking regarding current population status in Mexico—the main part of its distribution. Population declines have been reported in New Mexico and Durango, Mexico. A major threat to the White-sided Jackrabbit is the loss of grassland habitat due to an increase of livestock grazing, which provides better habitat for the highly adaptable Black-tailed Jackrabbit. Prospects for survival of the White-sided Jackrabbit in many parts of its distribution are poor. Additional threats are hunting for local subsistence, predation by introduced species, competition with livestock, habitat fragmentation, and human-induced fires. A model generated for predicted climate conditions in 2050 indicated a 60% reduction of the current distribution of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Its distribution in the USA is restricted to two valleys of only c.120 km? in southern Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and it has been listed as threatened by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. More data are needed on population status of the White-sided Jackrabbit. Bibliography. AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008i), Anderson (1972), Anderson & Gaunt (1962), Angermann (2016), Baker (1977), Baker & Greer (1962), Bednarz & Cook (1984), Best & Henry (1993b), Bogan & Jones (1975), Dalguest (1953), Davis & Lukens (1958), Davis & Russell (1953), Desmond (2004), Dixon et al. (1983), Dunn et al. (1982), Findley (1987), Findley & Claire (1977), Flux & Angermann (1990), Goldman & Moore (1945), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hoffmeister (1986), Lissovsky (2016), Mearns (1896b), Nelson (1909), Ramirez-Silva et al. (2010)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 139-140, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

60. Japanese Hare Lepus brachyurus French: Liévre du Japon / German: Japan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Japon Taxonomy. Lepus brachyurus Temminck, 1844, “tout I'Empire mais surtout dans I'lle de Jezo” (= Nagasaki, Kyushu, Japan). Formerly, L. brachyurus was placed in the genus Caprolagus. Lepus mandshuricus was recognized as a subspecies of L. brachyurus but received species status. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.b.brachyurusTemminck,1845—PacificsideofSHonshu,Shikoku,Kyushu,andsurroundingIs(Awaji,Shodo,Goto,Amakusa,andShimokoshiki). L.b.angustidensHollister,1912—NHonshuandSonSeaofJapanside. L.b.lyoniKishida,1937—SadoI(offWHonshu,WJapan). L. b. okiensis Thomas, 1906 — Oki Is (off SW Honshu, WJapan). Descriptive notes. Head—body 490-540 mm, tail 37-41 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 132-165 mm; weight 2:4.2-7 kg. The Japanese Hare is small, with compact stature and short ears and tail. Fur is dense and soft. Pelage is umber to tawny brown, with variable amounts of white on head and legs. Chest and sides are cinnamon. Throat and ventral fur are white, occasionally with dark hair tips. Ears are dorsally white or cinnamon, with small brown-black patches at tips. Tail is darker above and lighter below than dorsal fur. Japanese Hares inhabiting north-eastern Hondos and mountain regions have white winter fur. On Oki Island, melanistic morph that does not turn white in winter despite deep snow cover may indicate relatively recent introduction of a subspecies. Color varies geographically, with several distinct color forms. A recent genetic study showed that there is no association between winter coat color and genetic population structure in the Japanese Hare. Habitat. Fields, grasslands, and open forests from lowlands to alpine zones from sea level to elevations of more than 3000 m. Most common in low montane and montane zones. Land use and agriculture in Japan have remained stable for many centuries, and 68% ofJapan is covered by forest, providing stable habitat for the Japanese Hare. It prefers young forest stands, where open canopy allows greater herbaceous production and shrubs occur with high branch and stem densities. The Japanese Hare rests in bushes, under rocks or fallen trees, or in shallow burrows that they dig themselves. Food and Feeding. Summerdiets of theJapanese Hare mainly consist of grasses (48%), agricultural legume seeds, Stellaria (Caryophyllaceae), Polygonum (Polygonaceae), and grain. Winter diets include leaves and bark of young trees, especially Cryptomeria japonica (Cupressaceae), Acer (Sapindaceae), Paulownia (Paulowniaceae), Acanthopanax and Aralia (both Araliaceae), and legumes. Japanese Hares cause some damage to plantation forests and fruit trees. They seem to prefer branches and stems with large amounts of protein. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Japanese Hare occurs in February—July. Young are born in April-August but mostly in May/June when litter size is largest (2-5 young). The Japanese Hare has 2-3 litters/year;litter sizes are 1-6 young, with an average of 1-9 young. Young are born in a shallow nest dug by the mother and can run around one hour after birth. Young are nursed once per night for c¢.2 minutes at about midnight. They start feeding on plants c.8 days after birth but nurse until c.1 month after birth. Females are sexually mature at c.10 months of age. Activity patterns. The Japanese Hare is nocturnal. In captivity, activity starts at ¢.19:00 h and ends at 07:00-08:00 h after a period of restless running. During rest, individuals often close their eyes for 1-3 minutes for ¢.20 minutes/day. They groom before and after activity. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Japanese Hare is common across most of its distribution. Total population size in Japan is unknown but shows a stable trend. There has been recent concern regarding population decline of the Japanese Hare on Sado Island where it used to be common but is now rare, presumably due to predation by introduced Japanese Martens (Martes melampus). The Japanese Hare is an important game animal with ¢.400,000-800,000 individuals harvested each year. Recommendations are to determine population trends, densities, and current distribution. Bibliography. Abe, H. et al. (2005), Abe, S. et al. (2005), Angermann (1966, 1983, 2016), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Horino & Kuwahata (1984), Imaizumi (1970), Lissovsky (2016), Nunome et al. (2014), Otsu (1965), Shimano et al. (2006), Shimizu & Shimano (2010), Tachibana et al. (1970), Yamada & |sagi (1988), Yamada & Smith (2008), Yamada et al. (1988)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 147, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr, Russell A. Mittermeier (2016): Leporidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 107-148, ISBN: 978-84-941892-3-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6625539

22. Dice’s Cottontail Sylvilagus dicei French: Lapin de Dice / German: Dice-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Dice Taxonomy. Sylvilagus dicei Harris, 1932, “El Copey de Dota, in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica... 6000 feet [1829 m].” Sylvilagus dicei was formerly a subspecies of S. brasiliensis. Monotypic. Distribution. Cordillera de Talamanca (SC Costa Rica and W Panama). Descriptive notes. Head-body 390-450 mm, tail 15-29 mm, ear 49-54 mm, hindfoot 90-99 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. Dice’s Cottontail is large and has rudimentary tail and short ears. Dorsal pelage is a mix of blacks and browns, and sides are blackish gray. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Tail is blackish and often not visible. Habitat. Paramos grasslands, shrublands, and oak cloud forests. Dice’s Cottontail inhabits high elevations from 1524 m in Cervantes up to 3536 m in Cerro Chirropo, Costa Rica, and 1219 m at Boquete and 1615 m at Cerro Punta, Panama. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Dice’s Cottontail is poorly known, and little data are available on its population status, although it seems common in the Andean Paramos and highland forests of Panama and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, locals report that it was previously more common and had a larger distribution that extended to lower elevations that have been converted to cattle pasture and agricultural land. Dice’s Cottontail is probably endangered due to its small distribution, invasive predators such as Coyotes (Canis latrans) that follow cattle, human-caused fire, and habitat loss due to forest logging for pasture. Nevertheless, the entire distribution of Dice’s Cottontail is within protected areas. Studies on its distribution, population status, conservation threats, biology, and ecology are urgent priorities. Bibliography. Diersing (1981), Hall (1981), Harris (1932), Hershkovitz (1950), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Reid (2009), Smith & Boyer (2008d)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 122, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

24. Tres Marias Cottontail Sylvilagus graysoni French: Lapin des Marias / German: Tres-Marias-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Tres Marias Other common names: Tres Marias Rabbit Taxonomy. Lepus graysoni]. A. Allen, 1877, “Tres Marias Islands.” Restricted by E. W. Nelson in 1899 to “undoubtedly from Maria Madre [Island],” Nayarit, Mexico. Existence of two subspecies of S. graysoni is under consideration (grayson: and badistes). Taxonomic, morphological, karyological, and biogeographical evidence support the view that insular S. grayson: shared a common mainland ancestor with S. cunicularius that invaded islands when they were very likely connected to the mainland during maximal Pleistocene glaciation. Monotypic. Distribution. Islas Marias, Nayarit State (W Mexico). Descriptive notes. Head-body 440-470 mm, tail 33-50 mm, ear 62-64 mm, hindfoot 91-95 mm. No specific data are available for body weight. The Tres Marias Cottontail is medium-sized, with relatively short ears. Dorsal fur is reddish and brightest on nape and rump;lateral fur is paler reddish. Ventral fur is whitish, except for brownish throat patch. Habitat. Dense stands ofcacti, trees, brushes, and agaves 3-4 m high; tropical deciduous forests 4 m high; open woodland in coastal areas; agricultural coastal areas; and abandoned agricultural fields consisting of scattered growth of bushes from sea level to elevations of ¢.350 m. Insular habitats of the Tres Marias Cottontail are more arid than on the mainland. Average yearly rainfall is 635 mm; most of it falls during violet summer storms from the south-east. Temperatures are moderate, with monthly averages ranging from 20-3°C in January/February to 28-1°C in July/August. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. One study revealed that eleven female Tres Marias Cottontails were lactating and two females were pregnant in March. Activity patterns. After 15:00 h, Tres Marias Cottontails have been seen sitting in small open places in the woods’ undergrowth, apparently waiting for sunset. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. The Tres Marias Cottontail is listed as critically endangered in Mexico. Its distribution in Mexico is limited to the Tres Marias Islands, an area less than 500 km2. These islands are located c.86 km off the western coast of Mexico (21-22° N, 106-107° W) and include four islands: Maria Madre, Maria Magdalena, Maria Cleofas, and San Juanito. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails are declining because of extensive habitat alterations on these islands. In 1897, the Tres Marias Cottontail was abundant in some places on the four islands. During a 1987 expedition,it was found only on San Juanito Island, which makes up ¢.12% ofthe total possible extent of occurrence. Main threats are hunting; extensive clearing of habitats and introduced White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), domestic pigs, and domestic goats; and increasing human settlements associated with a federal prison on Maria Madre Island. Populations of Tres Marias Cottontails were more abundant on the uninhabited islands of Maria Cleofas and San Juanito, but Maria Cleofas Island has been stripped of ¢.50% ofits native vegetation for human settlements. Recommendations to ensure survival of the Tres Marias Cottontails are to establish reserves on Maria Madre Island, turn San Juanito Island into an ecological reserve, and stop all hunting. Status surveys need to be conducted to determine population status and specific habitat requirements, and long-term research on natural history and population densities in long-term projects should be initiated. Maria Magdalena Island has been designated an ecological reserve by the Mexican government. Bibliography. AMCELA, Romero & Rangel (2008e), Cervantes (1997), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman etal. (1990), Cervantes (1997), Diersing & Wilson (1980), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo (1987), Nelson (1899a, 1909), Wilson (1991)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 122-123, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

3. Natal Red Rock Hare Pronolagus crassicaudatus French: Lapin du Natal / German: Natal-Wollschwanzhase / Spanish: Liebre roja de Natal Other common names: Greater Red Rock Hare Taxonomy. Lepus crassicaudatus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1832, “Port Natal [= Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa].” Formerly, P. crassicaudatus was included as a subspecies of P. randensis but now has species status. Previously, P. rupestris and P. saundersiae were considered to be subspecies of P. crassicaudatus. Some authors list five subspecies (crassicaudatus, rudd, karigae, bowkeri, and lebombo), but their status, characteristics, and geographical limits are uncertain, and their validity is doubtful, especially because they are distinguished partly by color of nuchal patch. Distribution of P. ¢ crassicaudatus does not overlap those of P. randensis and P. rupestris, but in the western half ofits range overlaps with P. saundersiae. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Two subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. P.c.crassicaudatus1.GeoffroySaint-Hilaire,1832—SESouthAfrica(KwaZulu-NatalandEasternCapeprovincesSoftheTugelaRiver)andELesotho. P.c. rudd: Thomas & Schwann, 1905 — extreme S Mozambique (Maputo Province), Swaziland, and E South Africa (Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces S to the Tugela River). Descriptive notes. Head—body 460-560 mm, tail 35-110 mm, ear 60-80 mm, hindfoot 100-125 mm; weight 2.4-3.1 kg. The Natal Red Rock Hareis large, with rather dense and harsh fur. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and flecked with black. Pelage is bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is pale rufous, with irregular white patches and streaks. Head is grayish brown and slightly grizzled. Chin, lower cheeks, and throat are gray, with grayish white band extending laterally along edges ofjaws to brown to gray nuchal patch. Patch on throat is brownish rufous. Ears are relatively short, sparsely furred, and whitish gray on outer surfaces and gray on inner surfaces. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are dull rufous. Tail is short and entirety bright rufous. Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”), rocky hillsides, and ravines with grass or scrubby vegetation among rocks or bases of the rocks. Natural fragmentation of habitat exists due to distribution of suitable habitat. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs from sea level to elevations of ¢.1550 m. Food and Feeding. The Natal Red Rock Hare is herbivorous, and its diet consists mainly of sprouting grasses. It relies heavily on rocks and boulders for cover and rarely moves far away from them when foraging. Individuals avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding. Breeding. More than one male Natal Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. A study in KwaZulu-Natal recorded pregnant females in June and August and lactating females in August, October, and February. This suggests that reproduction takes place throughout much of the year. Numbers of embryos were 1-2. Activity patterns. The Natal Red Rock Hare is nocturnal. It hides in rock crevices, under boulders, or in dense grass during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Natal Red Rock Hare lives in small colonies of a few individuals. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Natal Red Rock Hare has a decreasing population trend, but it is widespread and abundant within its distribution. More than 10,000 adult individuals exist in the wild. Nevertheless, a population decline has been recorded due to encroachment of human settlements and increased hunting and trapping pressures in rural areas. Population decline is predicted to be 20% or more until 2022. In the limited region where the Natal Red Rock Hare occurs, human populations are largely low income and hunt local fauna for subsistence. This enhances the conservation threat to this otherwise abundant species. Further threats include agricultural and habitat encroachment that cause habitat loss. Since the 1990s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost and future loss until 2022 is expected in the distribution of the Natal Red Rock Hare. Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Flux & Anger mann (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004a, 2008b), Petter (1972), Smithers (1983), Taylor (1998)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 110, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

45. Woolly Hare Lepus oiostolus French: Lievre laineux / German: Tibet-Wollhase / Spanish: Liebre lanuda Taxonomy. Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840, “the snowy region of the Hemalaya, and perhaps also Tibet.” Restricted by Kao Yuehting and Feng Tsochien in 1964 to “Southern Tibet” [Xizang, China]. It was formerly placed in the subgenus Proeulagus and Eulagos. Subspecies przewalsku was assigned to L. capensis (= L. tolai) but was later placed in L. oiostolus. Existence of several more subspecies have been proposed, but they appear to be continuously distributed throughout the distribution. Molecular analysis suggested sister relationship between L. oiostolus and L. comus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.o.owostolusHodgson,1840—WTibetanPlateau(79°Eto92°E). L.o.hypsibiusBlanford,1875—JammuandKashmir(NWIndia),UpperSutlejValley(SWXizang,China). L.o.pallipesHodgson,1842—C&ETibetanPlateau,NNepal,Sikkim(NEIndia);possiblyalsoinNBhutan. L. o. przewalskii Satunin, 1907 — NE & E Tibetan Plateau to Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, and N Yunnan (China). Descriptive notes. Head—body 400-580 mm, tail 65-125 mm, ear 110-160 mm, hindfoot 102-140 mm; weight 2.4-3 kg. The Woolly Hare is medium-sized to large, with stocky stature. Fur is thick and soft, with long curly hairs. Fur color varies widely between populations from dark grayish brown to pale sandy yellow. Rump is paler and grayer than dorsal pelage. Eye rings are whitish. Bushy tail is white, with narrow brown stripe above. Ears have dark tips. The Woolly Hare probably molts only once per year so it does not change color in winter. Habitat. Upland grasslands of various types, alpine and montane meadows, shrub meadows, dry arid plains, and alpine cold deserts and also montane coniferous and broad-leafed mixed forests in the south-eastern parts ofits distribution, generally at elevations above 2500 m to as high as 5400 m. The Woolly Hare is more abundant in habitats with intermediate cover, and habitats with dense cover are less frequented at high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau. Individuals rest in quiet low areas exposed to the sun and sheltered from wind during rest. They may also take cover in marmot (Marmota) burrows and shelter among rocks. Food and Feeding. Diet of the Woolly Hare includes grasses and herbaceous plants. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Woolly Hare starts in April, and females produce two litters per year with 4-6 young each. At high elevations on the Tibetan Plateau, Woolly Hares may only be reproductively active in May-July, with an average litter size of 1-8 young. Annual production of young by a female in high elevations is estimated to be 2-9. Activity patterns. The Woolly Hare is primarily nocturnal but can be active during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Woolly Hare is reported to have restricted areas during active periods where individuals can be seen night after night. It lives alone but might forage in small groups during the mating season. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Woolly Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. Nevertheless, there are no available data on population status. In India, it has been assessed as endangered due to restricted distribution, fragmentation, and habitat loss. In Nepal and China, it is listed as least concern. Major threats to the Woolly Hare are decreases in quality and total area of habitat due to destruction and harvesting of fuel wood. This decrease was estimated to be less than 20% since 1995 but was expected to continue at a similar rate until 2015. In India, habitat destruction has resulted in population fragmentation and thus risk of genetic isolation. The Woolly Hare is hunted for local subsistence and fur trade. Bibliography. Angermann (1967b, 2016), Chakraborty, Bhattacharyya, Srinivasulu, Venkataraman, Sechrest & Daniel (2005), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Indian CAMP Workshop & Johnston (2008), Kao Yuehting & Feng Tsochien (1964), Lissovsky (2016), Lu Xin (2010, 2011), Smith (2008c), Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu (2012), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 134-135, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

27. Robust Cottontail Sylvilagus robustus French: Lapin des Davis / German: Texas-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Davis Taxonomy. Lepus pinetis robustus Bailey, 1905, “Davis Mountains, Texas, 6000 feet [1829 m] altitude,” USA. Formerly, S. robustus was included in S. floridanus but received species status based on morphological and genetic distinctiveness. Genetic analyses confirmed species status based on nDNA only. Monotypic. Distribution. S USA, in SE New Mexico and SW Texas (Chisos, Davis, Chinati, Guadalupe, and Elephant Mts), and NE Mexico, in N Coahuila (Sierra del Carmen). Descriptive notes. Head—body 380-460 mm, tail 47-67 mm, ear 70-80 mm, hindfoot 95-103 mm; weight 0.9-1.8 kg. The Robust Cottontail is larger and darker than the widely distributed Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus). Habitat. Madrean evergreen woodland of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae), oak (Quercus, Fagaceae), and juniper (Juniperus, Cupressaceae). The Robust Cottontail inhabits elevations above 1500 m and becomes most common above 1800 m. Its days are spent resting in brushy thickets. Food and Feeding. The Robust Cottontail feeds in open areas on grasses, leaves of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus, Rosaceae), and various herbs. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. The Robust Cottontail emerges from brushy thickets to forage late in the evening or early in the morning. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Although it has been suggested that only one population of the Robust Cottontail exists in the Davis Mountains, Texas, recent surveys confirm its presence in the Davis, Guadalupe, and Chisos mountains. Status of populations in the Chinati Mountains and the Sierra de la Madera is unknown. Furthermore, a new location on Elephant Mountain, Brewster County, Texas, has extended distribution of the Robust Cottontail. There may be a population of Sylvilagus in good condition in the Sierra del Carmen, Mexico, although it is not confirmed to be the Robust Cottontail. It occurs at low densities that are even lower during drought. Threats might be grazing practices, brush clearing, and habitat loss due to urbanization and development. Research is needed on population status, distribution, threats, population genetics, biology, and ecology of the Robust Cottontail, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas. Bibliography. Cervantes & Lépez-Hernédndez (2005), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lee, D.N. et al. (2010), Nalls et al. (2012), Ruedas (1998), Ruedas & Smith (2008), Schmidly (1977)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 124, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

59. Mountain Hare Lepus timidus French: Liévre variable / German: Schneehase / Spanish: Liebre de montana Other common names: Blue Hare, Snow Hare, Eurasian Arctic Hare, Varying Hare, White Hare; Irish Hare (hibernicus), Alpine Mountain Hare (varronis) Taxonomy. Lepus timidus Linnaeus, 1758, “in Europa.” Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus, and L. othus, were included in L. timidus based on morphological characteristics that, relative to their distributions, form a circumpolar “ring species.” This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidus in the Old World and L. arcticus in Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticus is conspecific with L. timidus and distinct from L. othus. Until conclusive evidenceis available, the three species are considered to be distinct with L. timidus in the Old World, L. othus in Alaska, and L. arcticus in northern Canada and Greenland. Nevertheless, the border between L. timidus and L. othusis not clear and might be either in the Bering Strait or in the Kolyma region, Russia. Recent molecular phylogenetic study suggests that the break occursin the Bering Strait, but more studies are required for a conclusive demarcation because the study was only based on mtDNA. Six populations of L. timidus are geographically separated and morphologically distinct and therefore can be treated as subspecies (abe, ainu, hibernicus, orii, scoticus, and varronis). Because division into subspecies is mostly based on pelage characteristics, it must be considered preliminary. Three studies analyzing geographic variation of metric characters of the skull of L. timidus demonstrated clinal variations. This doubts the advisability of identifying subspecies in L. timidus. Origin of subspecies of L. timidus in Europe from a panmictic population during the Weichsel period is supported by genetic assessments. Hybridization between L. timidus and L. europaeus and between L. timidus and L. tolai are recorded in contact zones. No interbreeding has been noted between scoticus and hibernicus on the island of Mull where both subspecies were introduced 60 years ago. Sixteen subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L. t. timidus Linnaeus, 1758 — Scandinavia S to 59° N, N Russia (S to 57° N to 58° N) to E of Ural Mts, Estonia, perhaps Poland, and Altai and Beita Mts in N Xinjiang (China); from Sweden extending in hybrid zones with the subspecies sylvaticus to S coast of Norway and W Latvia. L. t. abet Kuroda, 1938 — Kurile Is (Russia). L. t. ainu Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 — Hokkaido (Japan). L. t. begitschevi Koljuschev, 1936 — Taimyr Peninsula (Russia). L. t. gichiganus J. A. Allen, 1903 — C Yakutia, Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea coast (Russia). L. t. hibernicus Bell, 1837 — Ireland. L. t. kolymensis Ognev, 1922 — NE Siberia (Russia). L. t. kozhevnikovi Ognev, 1929 — C Russia from 57° to 58°N, whereit intergrades with the nomonotypical timidus S to 53° N. The W boundary is unclear. L. t. lugubris Kastschenko, 1899 — Siberian Altai Mts (Russia). L. t. mordeni Goodwin, 1933 — Russian Far East (Ussuri Valley and lower and middle Amur River) and Heilongjiang (China). L. t. ori Kuroda, 1928 — Sakhalin (Russia). L. t. scoticus Hilzheimer, 1906 — Scotland. L. t. sibiricorumJohansen, 1923 — W & SW Siberia (Russia), N Kazakhstan, and Tacheng Mts in N Xinjiang (China). L. t. sylvaticus Nilsson, 1831 —S Sweden, extending in hybrid zones with nominotypical timidus to S coast of Norway and W Latvia. L. t. transbaikalicus Ognev, 1929 — Trans-Baikal region in E Siberia (Russia) and E Inner Mongolia (= Nei Mongol, China). L. t. varronis Miller, 1901 — at high altitudes in the Alps, C Europe. The Mountain Hare inhabits the Palearctic from Scandinavia to Russian Far East, except E Chukchi Peninsula, S to Baltic States, E Poland, N Ukranie, and E to Tian Shan Mts, Altai Mts, N Mongolia, NW & NE China (N Xinjiang, N Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang), and Sikhote-Alin Mts. There are isolated populations in Scotland, Ireland, the Alps, Sakhalin (Russia), Hokkaido (Japan), and the Kurile Is. The nominotypical subspecies has been introduced into Faroe Is (Denmark), Scottish Is, and parts of England. Introduced populations on Spitsbergen I failed to persist. Descriptive notes. Head-body 510-550 mm, tail 59-65 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 159-165 mm; weight 2.4-3.4 kg (depending on subspecies). The smallest subspecies is the “Alpine Mountain Hare” (varronis), and the largest subspecies is the nominate timidus. Male Mountain Hares tend to be smaller than females. In general, northern populations are larger. The Mountain Hare is completely white in winter, and its head and body are brown in summer. Summer fur differs among populations and can be pale gray or dusky brown in mountainous areas to rich rustbrown on plains. Exceptionally, fur of the Irish Hare is white on rump, flanks, and legs, with its upper back and head remaining brown in winter. Ears are short and narrow, with 30mm black tips on exterior surfaces and 5mm on interior surfaces. Relatively large head has prominent eyes, with yellowish irises in adults but dark brown in young. Hindfeet have hairy soles and widely spreading toes. Molt occurs three times per year: white to brown in spring; brown to brown in late summer; and brown to white in autumn. Molt is initiated by daylength, and its duration is influenced by temperature. Mountain Hares at high elevations and latitudes remain white longer, relative to average ambient temperature and duration of snow cover. Habitat. Wide range of biomes from extreme tundra with permafrost in northern Russia to rich agricultural areas in Ireland. Mountain Hares prefer to live in forests of pine, birch, and juniper. In Scotland and Ireland, heather moors and bog land are favored, and in Russia, copses in the middle of open steppe and reed belts around lakes are selected. In the Alps, Mountain Hares prefer highly structured forests and thickets at forest edges. In spring, abundant herbaceous food in meadows is important to Mountain Hares. When a habitat offers food and shelter against predators, Mountain Hares use it for rest and activity. Forms are usually a depression they make. In snow, Mountain Hares burrow to make forms and enter rock crevices or marmot (Marmota) burrows for shelter or escape. They sometimes dig permanent burrows 1-2 m long in the ground. Mountain Hares in Ireland and the Alps do not burrow, but in Russia, complex burrows up to 7 m long have been reported. On agricultural land, Mountain Hares tends to be replaced by European Hares (L. europaeus) in Europe and Cape Hares (L. capensis) further east. Food and Feeding. Mountain Hares are grazers in summer and browsers in winter. Their diets vary with habitat. Plant species used as food in forest habitats include leaves and twigs of Salix and Populus (both Salicaceae), Sorbus (Rosaceae), Betula (Betulaceae), Juniperus (Cupressaceae), and Vaccinium (Ericaceae); on Scottish moorlands and Swedish islands, Calluna (Ericaceae) is eaten. Different grass species and clovers are eaten when available. With snow cover, Mountain Hares feed on twigs, bark, moss, and lichens. They seldom drink water but may eat snow. Re-ingestion ofsoft pellets takes place at 09:00-16:00 h and increases dietary digestibility up to 25%; these pellets contain three times as much protein as regular pellets. Mountain Hares feed with their back to the wind and can clear snow from vegetation with their forepaws. When snow is hard, they move to lower ground to feed. Breeding. Gestation of the Mountain Hare lasts 46-55 days. Postpartum estrus with copulations a few hours after parturition is common. Superfetation does occur. Females have predominantly 2-3 litters/year, with litter sizes of 1-3 young, resulting in 5-9 offspring/female during a reproductive season. Weather has an important influence on numberof litters produced during a reproductive season. The second litter is on average larger than the first one. Start of breeding varies with temperature, and gestating females have been recorded from January/February until August/September. Juvenile females do not breed in the same year of their birth. Differences in reproduction exist among populations or subspecies. For example, subspecies timidus in northern Norway normally has only 1-2 litters/ year, but in south-western Sweden,it regularly has three litters. Another difference is the length of the reproductive period with the Irish Hare having a longer one than scoticus. At birth, young are fully furred, their eyes are open, and they start suckling immediately. Adult sex ratio is 1:1. Overall juvenile survival from birth to the following spring averages 20%. In January-July, male Mountain Hares often follow 2-20 m behind a female for hours. Males use scent to track females. During courtship, several males chase a female, but males do not guard females. Females dominate males and strike with their forepaws with ears laid backward if the male approaches too closely. Copulation can involve five or more males and a female, and males can be involved in long fights. Activity patterns. Mountain Hares are nocturnal throughout the year, with a prolonged resting phase during the day. Activity patterns change seasonally with circadian rhythms. Mountains Hares rest by day in a form, with ears back and eyes half closed, but they only sleep for a few minutes at a time. In summer when daylight increases and in winter when food is scarce, more Mountain Hares are active during the day. Activity is highest during the first two hours after sunset. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Mountain Hares move an average of 1400 m/mnight, but they can travel up to 2400 m/night. Home rangesizes vary depending on climate. Home ranges are ¢.200 ha in boreal coniferous forests of Scandinavia. In moorland and pastures of Scotland and Ireland, respectively, and in the Alps, home ranges are 5-435 ha. Home ranges at night are larger than during the day, and they overlap ¢.35%. Densities vary from 1 ind/km? in Russia to 400 ind/km? on the Swedish Island of Vedholmen. Massive migrations of groups of 100-500, but up to 1500-2000 hares have been recorded in years of high numbers in northern Russia (Barents and Kara seas, Yamal Peninsula, Yakutia). Mountain Hares often move, rest, and feed together in groups of 2-5 individuals. Groups of 20-100 individuals have been recorded feeding in the same place. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Mountain Hare is widespread, populations appear to be stable across much ofits distribution, and it occurs in many protected areas. Nevertheless, historical game bag records in Northern Ireland indicate that there has been a substantial decline in abundance. Moreover, historical and recent records indicate that distribution of Mountain Haresis decreasing in southern Sweden. This decline started simultaneously with introduction of European Hares and continues while they expand northward. Furthermore, hunting statistics from Grisons, Switzerland, indicate a possible shift of both species to higher elevations. From 1990 to 2010, European Hares and Mountain Hares annually ascended more than 6 m and 3 m, respectively. Results of the study showed that European Hares advanced faster to higher elevations than Mountain Hares. A possible threat to the Irish Hare might be an introduced and expanding population of the European Hare in Ireland. The two examples from Sweden and Switzerland suggest that European Hares benefit from global warming and expand their distribution northward and to higher elevations and, thereby, might displace the Mountain Hares from their current distribution. Competitive exclusion and hybridization and introgression might explain how the European Hare is involved in the continuous decline of the Mountain Hare. Comparison of distributions of European Hares and Mountain Hares in Europe reveals that wherever European Hares occur, Mountain Hares are restricted to higher elevations or deep forests. It seems that European Hares and Mountain Hares are ecologically equivalent and strongly compete with one another. Studies of food preferences show that Mountain Haresin Ireland eat more grasses and herbs than Mountain Hares that live in sympatry with European Hares. Consequently,it has been argued that competitive exclusion by the European Hare restricts Mountain Hare distribution. Besides, in sympatric areas the forms of Mountain Hares are located in denser forest and further away from open fields than in allopatric areas. European Hares also expand their distribution and use of various habitats when densities of Mountain Hare are low. All these studies show that European Hares have the potential to expand into Mountain Hare territory and,in sympatry, Mountain Hares disappear from optimal European Hare habitat. European Hares and Mountain Hares hybridize with each other. Offspring are morphological intermediate and fertile. Normally, a male European Hare will mate with a female Mountain Hare. Reciprocal hybridization is also possible, but very rare due to typical mating behavior of European Hares and Mountain Hares in natural surroundings. Each time a Mountain Hare female hybridizes with a European Hare male, the local Mountain Hare population loses a species-specific litter. Consequently, observed decline in distribution and densities of Mountain Hares may be a direct consequence of unidirectional hybridization. This phenomenon is described as extinction by hybridization in the literature. After hybridization, mtDNA of Mountain Hares can be detected in European Hares if the hybrids backcross with true European Hares, which is often the case. Therefore, introgressed individuals can be found in both species. In areas where European Hares live currently in sympatry with Mountain Hares, the proportion of European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA is higher than in areas where both species lived in sympatry in the past. It seems that European Hares with Mountain Hare mtDNA have a reduced fitness compared with European Hares with species-specific mtDNA. This means that Mountain Hare mtDNA is incorporated into European Hares in sympatric areas but gradually disappears if European Hares remain allopatric. After the introduction of European Hares in Sweden, European Hares and Mountain Hares occurred together for a period of time before Mountain Hares disappeared and only European Hares remained. Hybrids were only observed a couple of years before they disappeared. Accordingly, hybridization, introgression, and the eventual disappearance of Mountain Hare mtDNA might be regarded as refined competitive exclusion in which traces of Mountain Hares are not only ecologically but also genetically erased from the European Hare. In addition to interactions with the European Hare, other causes for the Mountain Hare decline are under consideration, such as diseases (e.g. European Brown Hare Syndrome and tularemia), deforestation and agricultural expansion, predation, and negative interactions with other herbivores. Increasing tourism in the Alps has a negative impact on Mountain Hares and other biota. Nevertheless, none of these factors alone can explain declines of Mountain Hares. Research is needed to identify causes of regional decline. Current conservation status of the endemic Irish Hare and the Alpine Mountain Hare require specific investigations. Bibliography. Acevedo, Jiménez-Valverde et al. (2012), Angerbjérn (1981, 1986, 1991), Angerbjorn & Flux (1995), Angerbjérn & Pehrson (1987), Angermann (1967b, 2016), Baker et al. (1983), Barrett-Hamilton (1912), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Masseroni et al. (2011), Bisi, Nodari, Oliveira, Ossi et al. (2013), Caravaggi et al. (2015), Cederlund & Lemnell (1980), Dahl & Willebrand (2005), Dingerkus & Montgomery (2001, 2002), Fairley (1974), Flux (1970, 1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gamboni (1997), Genini Gamboni et al. (2008), Hacklander & Jenny (2011), Hewson (1962, 1970, 1976, 1990, 1991), Hewson & Hinge (1990), Hiltunen & Kauhala (2006), Hiltunen et al. (2004), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Hulbert, lason, Elston & Racey (1996), Hulbert, lason & Racey (1996), Jansson & Pehrson (2007), Kauhala et al. (2005), Lind (1961, 1963), Lissovsky (2016), Long, (2003), Lonnberg (1905), Loukashkin (1943), Mallon (1985), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Myrberget (1984), Nodari (2006), Nyholm (1968), Ognev (1966), Olsson (1997), Pehrson (1983a, 1983b), Rao et al. (2003), Rehnus et al. (2013), Rhymer & Simberloff (1996), Slotta-Bachmayr (1998), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008l), Sokolov et al. (2009), Suchentrunk et al. (1999), Thirgood & Hewson (1987), Thulin (2003), Thulin & Tegelstrdom (2002), Thulin et al. (1997), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wolfe & Hayden (1996), Wolfe et al. (1996), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005), Zachos et al. (2010)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 145-146, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

15. New England Cottontail Sylvilagus transitionalis French: Lapin de Nouvelle-Angleterre / German: Neuengland-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Nueva Inglaterra Other common names: Wood Rabbit Taxonomy. Lepus transitionalis Bangs, 1895, “Liberty Hill, Conn. [= New London Co., Connecticut, USA].” Formerly, S. obscurus was included in S. transitionalis but received species status due to the discovery of two different cytotypes (S. obscurus 2n = 42 and S. transitionalis 2n = 52). Monotypic. Distribution. NE USA,in coastal S Maine, coastal and Merrimack River valley region of S New Hampshire, SE New York, W Massachusetts (including parts of Cape Cod), W & E (E of the Connecticut River) Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Descriptive notes. Head—body 390-430 mm, tail 22-65 mm, ear 50-60 mm, hindfoot 87-97 mm; weight 0.8-1 kg. The New England Cottontail is a medium-sized species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur is pinkish buff to ocher. Back is additionally overlaid with distinct black wash. Ears are short and rounded, and anterior edges are covered with black hair. A characteristic black spot usually occurs between ears. Females are slightly less than 1% larger than males. Adults have one molt per year in autumn. Pelage characteristics alone are not sufficient to differentiate the New England Cottontail from the Eastern Cottontail (S. floridanus); both species can have the same color and pelage characteristics throughout the distribution of the New England Cottontail. Cranial characteristics are most reliable to distinguish the two species. Habitat. Early successional habitat specialist, inhabiting areas of open woods or their borders, or shrubby areas and thickets in open areas. Historically, New England Cottontails occupied early successional forests that became abundant when farmlands were abandoned, and maturation of these forests into closed-canopy stands caused the decline of this species beginning in the 1960s. New England Cottontails prefers habitats with dense understory vegetation and fallow agricultural lands. They avoid venturing into the open and remain in close proximity to cover. Food and Feeding. Diet of the New England Cottontail includes a variety of vegetation, but it is the only species of Sylvilagus that extensively consumes conifer needles. Breeding. Reproductive season of the New England Cottontail lasts from early March to early September, peaking in March—July. It is a postpartum synchronous breeder. Gestation appearsto last 28 days. Litter size averages 3-5 young, and females give birth to an average of 24 young/year. Twenty percent of pregnancies are from juvenile females breeding in their first year. Hybridization between the New England Cottontails and Eastern Cottontails occurs in the wild, but frequency is unknown. A genetic study conducted in the north-eastern USA where both species live sympatrically indicated that no hybridization occurred. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Dominance hierarchies of male New England Cottontails regulate access to females and reproductive success. Reproductive behavior is most intense during the estrous period of females, and little social interaction occurs between estrous periods. Reproductive behavior begins 2-3 days before parturition, and postpartum breeding occurs. Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The New England Cottontail historically inhabited boreal habitats throughout south-eastern Canada in southern Quebec and north-eastern USA from southern Maine to Connecticut and New York. Nevertheless, a recent study restricted current distribution to 12,180 km?, c.86% less than the historical distribution. It has been hypothesized that the New England Cottontail is a “refugial relict” and that its patchy distribution resulted from a gradual change in climate coupled with invasion and displacement by the Eastern Cottontail in lowland areas. This process appears to be accelerated by habitat alteration. Status of the New England Cottontail has been of concern to biologists and resource agencies for more than four decades. It once had a widespread distribution across New England, USA, but suitable habitats of early successional forest have declined by ¢.86% since 1960, and available habitat has become increasingly fragmented. Moreover, the Eastern Cottontail has invaded much of the habitat of the New England Cottontail. As a consequence, the New England Cottontail has disappeared throughout much of north-eastern USA. It is suspected that the population of the New England Cottontail has been reduced by more than 50% since 1994. They are rare to scarce in fragmented populations. Even in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, which had one of the densest populations in the 1980s, a dramatically decline seems to have occurred based on the last census in 2000-2001. The New England Cottontail is hunted for sport and food. Major threats are competition with the Eastern Cottontail, landscape fragmentation, and forest maturation. An ongoing population decline is expected because threats are unabated. A recent genetic study showed that populations of New England Cottontails in Maine and New Hampshire and on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, are at great risk due to low genetic variability caused by fragmentation that limits gene flow. Problems for conservation of the New England Cottontail are confusion with the Eastern Cottontail by hunters; lack of education on existence, biology, and habitat requirements of the New England Cottontail; and conversion of native shrublands to other land uses. Recommendations are to develop habitat connections among fragmented populations, increase suitable habitat such as early successional and shrub-dominated areas, prohibition of hunting, and recolonize of suitable habitat by translocations. Research on the New England Cottontail should be conducted on biology, ecology, population status, and competition with other lagomorphs. Bibliography. Barry et al. (2008), Chapman (1975a), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Chapman & Morgan (1973), Chapman & Stauffer (1981), Chapman et al. (1977), Dalke (1942), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis & Litvaitis (2011), Fenderson, Kovach, Litvaitis, O'Brien et al. (2014), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holden & Eabry (1970), Litvaitis, J.A., Barbour et al. (2008), Litvaitis, J.A., Johnson et al. (2003), Litvaitis, J.A., Tash et al. (2006), Litvaitis, M.K., Ruedas et al. (1989), Smith & Litvaitis (2000), Tash & Litvaitis (2007), Tefft & Chapman (1987), Whitaker & Hamilton (1998)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 116-117, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

44. Yunnan Hare Lepus comus French: Lievre du Yunnan / German: Yunnan-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de Yunnan Taxonomy. Lepus comus G. M. Allen, 1927, “Teng-yueh [Tengueh], Yunnan Province, China, 5,500 feet [1676 m] altitude.” It was formerly included in L. oiostolus but received species status due to morphological and ecological differences. It might be allopatric or parapatric with L. oiostolus. Molecular phylogenetics indicate sister relationship between L. comus and L. oiostolus. Existence of three subspecies (comus, pena, and pygmaeus) is often mentioned but not supported by low variation of mtDNA. Monotypic. Distribution. NE Myanmar and CS China (Yunnan, except the part SW of the Mekong River, SW Sichuan, and W Guizhou). Descriptive notes. Head-body 320-480 mm, tail 95-110 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 98-130 mm; weight 1.8-2.5 kg. The Yunnan Hare is small, with soft long and flat grayish brown dorsal fur. Posterior parts of hips are vaguely gray. Flanks, forelegs, and outer sides of hindlegs are bright ocherous, mixed with yellow. Ventral fur is white. Whitish band extends from mouth to bases of ears, including arches over eyes. Ear tops are black, and insides are pale gray. Tail is dark brown above and light gray tinged with yellow below. Small size and bright fur coloring are considered to be diagnostic. Habitat. High montane pastures at elevations of 1300-3200 m. Habitat preferences of the Yunnan Hare are thought to be similar to those of the Woolly Hare (L. oiostolus) in the Tibetan Plateau. Food and Feeding. The Yunnan Hare feeds on forbs and shrubs. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Yunnan Hare normally starts in April, with the first litter appearing in May. Litter sizes are 1-4 young, with an average of two, and females have 2-3 litters/year. Activity patterns. The Yunnan Hare forages primarily at night, but it is also active during the day. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Yunnan Hare is widespread and occurs in protected areas. It is reported to be very common by local inhabitants of the region. Remote habitat of the Yunnan Hare is unlikely to be threatened but increasing agricultural development in valleys might isolate mountain populations. More data are needed to fully understand population trends, behavior, habitat, and taxonomy. Bibliography. Cai Guiquan & Feng Zuojian (1982), Corbet (1978), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Smith (2008c), Smith & Johnston (2008g), Wu Chunhua, Li Haipeng et al. (2000), Wu Chunhua, Wu Jianping et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 134, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

4. Smith’s Red Rock Hare Pronolagus rupestris French: Lapin de Smith / German: Rotkaninchen / Spanish: Liebre roja de Smith Taxonomy. Lepus rupestris A. Smith, 1834, “South Africa, rocky situations.” Refined by R. S. Hoffman and A. T. Smith in 2005 to “probably Van Rhynsdorp District, Western Cape Province, South Africa.” Formerly, P. rupestris was included in P. crassicaudatus. Pronolagus saundersiae was until recently included as a subspecies of P. rupestris but now has species status. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified because probably no gene flow occurs between them. Distribution of P. rupestris does not overlap those of P. randensis, P. saundersiae, and P. crassicaudatus. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Pronolagus, the subspecific taxonomyis not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Four subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. P.r.rupestrisA.Smith,1834—N&NWSouthAfrica(NorthWestandNorthernCapeprovinces);recently,aspecimenhasbeensampledinSNamibia(Keetmanshoop),sothedistributioncouldbecontiguousfromSouthAfricaacrosstheOrangeRiver. P.r.curryiThomas,1902—NSouthAfrica(FreeStateP.r.). P.r.nytkaeThomas,1902—EZambia,andNMalawi. P. r. vallicola Kershaw, 1924 — SW Kenya and C Tanzania. Descriptive notes. Head-body 380-540 mm, tail 50-115 mm, ear 80-110 mm, hindfoot 85-100 mm; weight 1.4-2.1 kg. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized and has thick, dense, woolly fur with reddish undertone. Dorsal pelage is grizzled brown anteriorly, rufous posteriorly, and bright rufous on rump. Flanks are paler, and ventral fur is rufous to whitish rufous. Head and ears are grayish brown, and cheeks are grayish white. Throat patch is brownish, and nuchal patch is rufous. Forelimbs are bright rufous, and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized and either black or black and dark red. Fur color varies geographically. Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”) and rockyhillsides with boulders with grassy or scrubby vegetation. Rock crevices and boulders are essential habitat features, and gaps between them naturally fragment populations. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is generally found at lower elevations in South Africa than Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. rupestris). Food and Feeding. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous. It forages near rocks, and its diet consists mainly of grasses, preferably fresh sprouts. One study offecal pellets from the Ngong Hills, Kenya, showed that Ischaemum afrum (Poaceae) was the main grass in the diet. A small amount of other grass species and a very small amount of dicotyledons also were recorded in the diet. Smith’s Red Rock Hares avoid areas of dense vegetative cover and moribund vegetation when feeding. Breeding. More than one male Smith’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. Females give birth to young in nests lined with their fur and grass in small cavities in the ground. Young are likely altricial, with sparse covering of hair and eyes closed. Reproductive season is from spring to summer (September-February) in South Africa. Gestation lasts 35-45 days, and litter sizes are 1-2 young. Activity patterns. There is no specific information available for this species, but Smith’s Red Rock Hare is no doubt nocturnal. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Smith’s Red Rock Hare has a wide variety of vocalizations. It emits a “tu...tu” sound when alarmed, butit grunts when it is disturbed. Young make “churring” sounds when trapped under rocks. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that might have a social function. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Smith’s Red Rock Hare is widespread. In South Africa, overall population is greater than 10,000 adults. A population decline of more than 10% is predicted to occur by 2022 in South Africa. No data are available on the status of the East African population. Unregulated hunting poses a conservation threat. Habitat loss from construction of human dwellings is a secondary threat. Twenty percent of the habitat of Smith’s Red Rock Hare has been lost since the 1900s, and future loss is predicted to continue at the same rate until 2022. Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie (1997), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c¢), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee (2015), Matthee & Robinson (1996), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b), Smith & Boyer (2008a), Smithers (1983), Stewart (1971b), Thomas (1902c)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 110-111, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

29. Hispid Hare Caprolagus hispidus French: Lapin dAssam / German: Borstenkaninchen / Spanish: Liebre hispida Other common names: Assam Rabbit Taxonomy. Lepus hispidus J.T. Pearson, 1839, “Assam, base of the Boutan [= Bhutan] mountains,” India. Caprolagus hispidus is sympatric with Lepus nigricollis. Monotypic. Distribution. S Himalaya foothills, N India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar), S Nepal, NE India (N West Bengal and Assam), and S through NW Bangladesh; recently recorded in S Bhutan (Royal Manas National Park). Descriptive notes. Head-body c.480 mm, tail c.53 mm, ear c.70 mm, hindfoot c¢.98 mm; weight 1.8-3.2 kg. The Hispid Hare has coarse bristly fur. Dorsal pelage is dark brown, a mixture of black and brown hairs. Ventral fur is brown on chest and whitish on abdomen. Tail is short and brown throughout but paler below. The Hispid Hare has straight and strong claws. Habitat. Early successional riverine communities, typically comprising dense tall grasslands, commonly referred to as elephant grass or thatchland such as Saccharum, Imperata, Themeda, Narenga, Arundo, or Phragmites (all Poaceae), at elevations of 100-250 m. These grasslands originate in the succession between primary colonizing grasses through deciduousriverine forest to the sal (Shorea robusta, Dipterocarpaceae) forest climax. Tall grassland habitats might also have an understory during later stages of succession. Maintenance of tall grassland habitat is caused by prolonged inundation during the monsoon or by periodic burning in relatively undisturbed areas, or by regular burning, grazing, or regular harvesting in disturbed areas. Tall grassland habitat has different plant species, dominating in different situations. Main types of grassland are composed of Themeda villosa, Saccharum-Narenga associations, Arundo-Phragmates associations, Imperata cylindrica, and Cymbopogon spp. (all Poaceae) and Alpinia allughas (Zingiberaceae), Typha elephantine (Typhaceae), and Leea crispa (Vitaceae). The Hispid Hare inhabits all of these and other plant communities of varying importance at different times of the year according to availability of cover. During the dry season when most of these communities are subject to extensive regular burning, the Hispid Hare is deprived of cover and all other resources until regrowth of vegetation following onset of early rains a few weeks or even up to 2-3 months later. During this period, the Hispid Hare is entirely dependent on any unburned cover such as marshy sward dominated by Phragmites, Arundo spp., and Saccharum spontaneum (all Poaceae) along riverbanks that are maintained by later prolonged inundation and are therefore left unburned. It has been suggested that carrying capacities of Hispid Hares are determined by sizes of small patches of tall grassland that escape annual dry-season burning. Enforced confinement within these isolated patches of post-burn cover might increase susceptibility of Hispid Hares to predation. Food and Feeding. Based on fecal analysis, Hispid Hares in Nepal ate 19-23 plant species, with S. spontaneum, I. cylindrica, Desmostachya bipinnata, and Cynodon dactylon (all Poaceae) having the highest frequency of occurrence in feces. Composition of plant species in the diet was proportional to availabilities. A significantly higher diversity of plants was recorded in the diet of Hispid Hares after the fire. Another study reported that Hispid Hares ate inner parts of stems of Narenga porphyrocoma, leaves of Cymbopogon sp., I. cylindrical, and inner cores of S. spontaneum. Breeding. Based on a three-month study in western Nepal, Hispid Hares bred in January/February during the post-burn period in a belt of floodplain habitat dominated by marshes, swamps, oxbow lakes, and tall dense grasslands, intermixed with riverine forest. Uniformly small size of scrotal testes in males suggests a monogamous mating system. A single fetus found in a pregnant female during the study in western Nepal, a single young born in captivity, and four nipples on captured females suggest that Hispid Hares have small litter sizes. It is unknown if young Hispid Hares are altricial or precocial, but they might be intermediate as are young Volcano Rabbits (Romerolagus diaz), which live in a similar habitat. Nests of Hispid Hares were made with leaves of Narenga (Poaceae), laid outcircular shapes. Activity patterns. The Hispid Hare is crepuscular. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Short-limbed Hispid Hares have small home ranges of 0-82 ha for males and 0-28 ha for females. Overlapping home ranges suggest they live in pairs, although home ranges of males were larger than those of females. Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. The Hispid Hare receives maximum protection in India under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and in Nepal under Schedule I of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Measures Act of 1973. It has been nationally listed as endangered in India and critically endangered in Nepal. Almost no information is available about population status of the Hispid Hare, but there is no doubtthat it has declined substantially due to loss oftall grassland habitat. It has been estimated that a population decline of 20-50% in suitable habitat has occurred since 1994 and the decline is expected to continue at this rate. The few patches oftall grassland habitat that remain all occur in national parks, wildlife reserves, and sanctuaries scattered across the former distribution of the Hispid Hare. There have been very few records from Uttar Pradesh and Assam since 1951. Current populations exist in a few isolated patches across its former distribution. Area of occupancy is estimated at 11-500 km?. Isolated relict populations of Hispid Hares remain at risk because of continuing degradation of habitat even within these protected areas. Major threats are habitat destruction for agriculture, forestry, human settlement, flood control, and irrigation schemes. Additional threats are habitat degradation due to dry-season burning, illegal grazing, and harvesting of tall grasslands. Recommendations are to further study distribution, status, biology, and ecology of the Hispid Hare. Research on its distribution should be conducted at different times of the year because Hispid Hares change habitat according to availabilities of cover during flood and burning seasons. Control of the burning season within the distribution of the Hispid Hare is needed to ensure that suitable habitat is available throughout the year. Moreover,status surveys of tall grassland habitats should be conducted. Results of a study on investigating effects of burning and cutting of grassland dominated by I. cylindrica showed that patches of grassland could be left unmanaged for a two-year rotation without significantly altering composition of the plant community and thereby provide refugia for cover-dependent species such as the Hispid Hare. More studies, particularly long-term ones, investigating effects of disturbing factors to habitat are required to formulate appropriate long-term management plans for remnants tall grassland. Local education regarding status of the Hispid Hare is necessary, including educating staff of reserves where the Hispid Hare occurs. Bibliography. Aryal & Yadav (2010), Aryal et al. (2012), Bell et al. (1990), Ghose (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Jordan et al. (2005a), Maheswaran (2006), Maheswaran & Smith (2008), Nidup et al. (2015), Peet et al. (1999), Tandan et al. (2013), Yadav et al. (2008)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 125, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

2. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare Pronolagus randensis French: Lapin de Jameson / German: Rand-Wollschwanzhase / Spanish: Liebre roja de Jameson Taxonomy. Pronolagus randensis Jameson, 1907, “Observatory Kopje...Johannesburg...Witwatersrand Range, Transvaal...5,900 ft [1798 m],” South Africa. Formerly, P. randensis included P. crassicaudatus as a subspecies. Systematic position of the two widely disjunct populations needs to be clarified; there is no evidence of gene flow between them. A preliminary study on mtDNA within the distribution P. randensis revealed little geographical variation. Distribution of P. randensis does not overlap those of P. crassicaudatus and P. rupestris, but it does overlap the eastern part of the distribution of P. saundersiae. The subspecific taxonomy in Pronolagusis still unresolved; the original descriptions of subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on a few external characters and on small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations; hence, the distinctions in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Three subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. P.r.randensisJameson,1907—Zimbabwe,extremeWMozambique,EBotswana,andNESouthAfrica. P.r.caucinusThomas,1929—C&NWNamibia,andperhapsextremeSWAngola. P.r. whitei Roberts, 1938 — E Zimbabwe. Descriptive notes. Head—body 420-500 mm,tail 60-135 mm, ear 80-100 mm, hindfoot 87-110 mm; weight 1.8-3 kg. The Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is medium-sized. Fur is dense and woolly, with silky texture. Dorsal pelage is brown, grizzled, and rufous on rump and flanks. Ventral fur is pale cinnamon. Head is grizzled brownish gray, with lower cheeks and throat whitish gray. Ears are short and brownish gray. Nuchal patch is rufous, and gular patch is brownish rufous. Forelimbs and hindlimbs are pale rufous. Tail is medium-sized, with blackish rufous color. Habitat. Solid rocks (“kopjes”), gorges, cliffs, and rocky hills, often naturally fragmented. Rock crevices and boulders are essential components of habitat ofJameson’s Red Rock Hares. Populations sometimeslive on isolated kopjes up to 22 km apart, and therefore, individuals have to cross non-rocky habitat to disperse. When Jameson’s Red Rock Hare lives in sympatry with the Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare (P. saundersiae), it prefers drier, lower mountain slopes, with manyjumbled boulders and rock crevices, and Hewitt’s Red Rock Hare prefers higher elevations with fewer boulders and crevices and higher rainfall. Food and Feeding. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is herbivorous and grazes on grasses among rocks or at the base of rocky hills. Individuals congregate on recently burned areas to feed on sprouting grasses and avoid areas of dense aerial cover and moribund vegetation when feeding. Breeding. More than one male Jameson’s Red Rock Hare might accompany a female during the breeding season. It seems to breed throughout the year in Zimbabwe. Pregnancies have been recorded in January, May, July, and August. Lactating females have been documented in June,July, and August. Litter sizes are 1-2 young, with an average of 1-1 young. Activity patterns. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is mainly nocturnal but regularly feeds and sunbathes in late afternoon. It rests in rock crevices, under boulders, or in thick grass near rocks during the day. All species of red rock hares can leap from rock to rock and run up steep rock faces to reach crevices. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Jameson’s Red Rock Hares generally live alone. Occasionally, they form small groups of a female and her young or an adult female with 1-2 males. Several individuals sometimes congregate for grazing. A study in Matopos Hill, Zimbabwe, showed that most nocturnal observations were of single individuals and only 15% were of pairs. Characteristic disc-like feces are deposited in latrines that may serve a social function. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Jameson's Red Rock Hare is widespread and common within its distribution. Although some decline has occurred and continues, it is not severe, and there are more than 10,000 mature individuals in South Africa. Future decline in the total population is predicted to be 20% or more over an unspecified length of time. Decrease in habitat quality has occurred due to commercial plantations of pine (Pinus, Pinaceae) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus, Myrtaceae) within the distribution ofJameson’s Red Rock Hare. Since the 1900s, 21-50% ofthe total suitable habitat has been lost, and future loss is predicted to be greater than 20% until the year 2022. Jameson’s Red Rock Hare is hunted for food and sport. Bibliography. Angermann (2016), Boitani et al. (1999), Duthie & Robinson (1990), Happold (2013c), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lissovsky (2016), Matthee, Collins & Keith (2004b, 2008a), Peddie (1975), Roberts (1938), Smithers (1983), Smithers & Wilson (1979)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 109-110, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

57. Arctic Hare Lepus arcticus French: Liévre arctique / German: Polarhase / Spanish: Liebre artica Other common names: American Arctic Hare, Canadian Arctic Hare, Labrador Hare, Greenland Hare, Polar Hare Taxonomy. Lepus arcticus Ross, 1819, “Southeast of Cape Bowen” (Possession Bay, Bylot Island, latitude 73°37’N, Canada). Formerly, the three arctic species, L. timidus, L. arcticus and L. othus, were included in L. timidus based on morphological characteristics. This is also supported by genetic analysis of mtDNA, although evidence based only on mtDNA should be treated cautiously. There is also the view that two species exist: L. timidus in the Old World and L. arcticus in Greenland, northern Canada, Alaska, and the Chukchi Peninsula, Russia. Other lagomorph taxonomists consider that L. arcticus is conspecific with L. timidus and distinct from the L. othus. Until conclusive evidence is available, the three species are considered distinct species with L. timidus in the Old World, L. othus in Alaska, and L. arcticus in northern Canada and Greenland. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. The original descriptions of the subspecies are often not very helpful as they are mostly based on few exterior characteristics and small numbers of individuals. It has been shown that the variability is clinal in more careful investigations. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable. Nine subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.a.arcticusRoss,1819—BaffinI,BylotI,andMelvillePeninsula,NENunavut(NCanada). L.a.andersoniNelson,1934—C&NENorthwestTerritoriesandmostofNunavut(NWCanada). L.a.bangsiiRhoads,1896—NewfoundlandandNEL.a.(ECanada.) L.a.banksicolaManning&Macpherson,1958—BanksI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago. L.a.groenlandicusRhoads,1896—W,N&NEice-freecoastalregionsofGreenland. L.a.hubbardiHandley,1952—PrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago. L.a.labradoriusMiller,1899—SEBaffinI,NHudsonBayIs,coastalSNunavut,NEManitoba,NQuebec,andNWL.a.Peninsula(NCanada). L.a.monstrabilisNelson,1934—QueenElizabethIs,exceptPrincePatrickI,intheCanadianArcticArchipelago. L. a. porsildi Nelson, 1934 — S & SW ice-free coastal regions of Greenland. Descriptive notes. Head—body 560-660 mm, tail 45-100 mm, ear 80-90 mm, hindfoot 146-164 nm; weight 2.5-6.8 kg. Measurements of Artic Hares vary depending on geographical location. In the north, individuals are larger than in the south. Summer pelage is gray in southern populations and white in northern populations. In winter, Arctic Hares are white except for black ear tips. Winter fur is long and soft. During molt, Arctic Hares remove loose tufts of hair by rolling in snow. Eyes are yellowish brown. Ears are blackish in front and white behind, with a whitish band isolating black tips. Large feet are padded with heavy, yellowish brush of hair. Claws on forefeet and hindfeet are long and well adapted for digging in snow. Habitat. Tundra, primarily north of the tree line, arctic alpine, and exposed coastal barren areas from sea level to elevations of ¢.900 m. The Artic Hare prefers hillsides or rock-strewn plateaus rather than flat bog land. Throughout most ofits distribution, it spends summer in the tundra north of the tree limit, but in winter, it might penetrate up to 160 km into the forest. Areas with little snow cover and wind exposure are favored, and groups of several hundred Arctic Hares may aggregate in such areas in winter, moving from one place to the other in search for food. Food and Feeding. The Arctic Hare feeds mainly on woody plants throughout the year. Arctic willow (Salix arctica, Salicaceae) is the main species eaten in all seasons, and its leaves, buds, bark, and roots make up to 95% of winter diets. It also feeds on mosses, lichens, buds, and berries of crowberry (Empetrum niger, Ericaceae), young blooms of saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia, Saxifragaceae), mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna, Polygonaceae), and various kinds of grasses. Summer diets of Arctic Hares are highly variable but mainly contain Arctic willow, mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia, Rosaceae), and grasses. On Baffin Island, dwarf willows (S. arctica and S. herbacea) and crowberry are the main food. In Greenland, diets consist of Arctic willow and mountain sorrel. The Arctic Hare regularly feeds on stomach contents of eviscerated Caribou (Rangifer tarandus). Water is obtained by eating snow. It makes trails from one grazing place to the next. Often high places are selected to forage. Arctic Hares dig through snow to find food. If snow has a hard crust, they stamp on it with their forefeet to make a hole. Feeding usually occurs in morning and evening. Breeding. Mating season of the Arctic Hare occurs in April/May. The male follows the female continuously. During copulation, the male bites the female fiercely on neck and back that she often is covered with blood. Mating corresponds with molting, so fur “flies” during the process. Gestation is c¢.53 days. Young are born in May-July in nests lined with dry grass, moss, and fur from the mother. Nests are either a depression among mosses and grasses or under or between rocks. Females have litter of 2-8 young, with an average of 5-4 young. Females in the far north have one litter per year, and in Newfoundland, average litter size was three young. Newborns are blackish brown, with white bellies, chins, and throats. When threatened, young flatten out on the ground, with their eyes closed and ears pressed tightly on their backs. During the first 2-3 days oflife, the mother stays with her young and defends them against danger. Nursing takes place every 18-20 hours, and nursing bouts lasts 1-4 minutes. By the third day oflife, young hide among stones when danger approaches. After c.2 weeks oflife, young disperse and hide behind rocks appearing only when nibbling on vegetation or nursing. The mother remains near the nursing site. Gradually, young increase their movements to a maximum of c.1 km from where they were born. Juvenile pelage is darker than summer pelage of adults. By the third week of life, young leave their mothers and form nursery bands of up to 20 individuals. Young are weaned at 8-9 weeks old. By late July, they are nearly as large as their parents and are white. Young breed for the first time as yearlings. Adult sex ratio of Arctic Hares is biased toward males. Activity patterns. The Arctic Hare rests during the day when the sun is shining, but during the dark winter, it has no fixed time for resting. When resting,it usually sits near a large stone, dozing or asleep, sheltered from wind, covered from aerial predators, and warmed by the sun. Usually, it chooses a site a little way up a slope. Arctic Hares often are immobile during resting,sitting crouched, with ears halfway erect and eyes nearly closed. Often 2—4 individuals rest together. In the afternoon, the Arctic Hare often leaves its resting place and starts feeding. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Arctic Hare might be migratory because most individuals in an area disappear during summer, apparently moving northward. In November, they apparently migrate southward. Nevertheless, some researchers do not believe that mass migrations are undertaken by the Arctic Hare. In northern populations, hopping on hindfeet without the forefeet touching the ground has been reported for disturbed and frightened Arctic Hares. Home ranges are 9-290 ha, depending on habitat quality. In Newfoundland,sizes of male home ranges in summer are double the size of female home ranges. Movements increase in March/April with the onset of the mating season. In winter, Arctic Hares may protect themselves from extreme cold by burrowing into snow. These snow dens consist of a tunnel c¢.10 cm in diameter and 30 cm in depth, with an enlarged terminal chamber. The Arctic Hare is usually solitary, but grouping behavior is very characteristic, with groups of 100-300 individuals being observed. In large groups, most individuals might be asleep, but one is usually awake and alert to danger. From early winter until early spring, Arctic Hares form groups of 15-20 individuals. Arctic Hares frequently move among groups. Adults dominate juveniles, and dominance is unrelated to sex or breeding condition. When the mating season starts, groups disperse, pairs are formed, and each pair establishes a small territory. The male usually leaves the female after birth of young but sometimes remains close. Arctic Hares are usually silent, but lactating females may emit a short series of low growls as they approach their nursing places. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The [UCN Red List. The Arctic Hare is widespread, and population status seems to be constant although little monitoring occurs. Native people modestly harvest Arctic Hares for food and fur. Southern populations of Arctic Hares might be subject to habitat loss and climate change, although the latter is speculative. Distributions of the Arctic Hare and the Snowshoe Hare (L. americanus) slightly overlap, but the two species differ in their habitat preferences. The Arctic Hare occupies treeless barrens or tundra, whereas the Snowshoe Hare inhabits forests. In Newfoundland, replacement of the Arctic Hare by the Snowshoe Hare might be an example of competitive exclusion. Other theories list lack of suitable food or predation by the Canadian Lynx (Lynx canadensis) as causes that limited distribution of the Arctic Hare in Newfoundland. Bibliography. Angermann (1967a, 2016), Aniskowicz et al. (1990), Audubon (2005), Bakeret al. (1983), Banfield (1974), Barta et al. (1989), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Bergerud (1967), Best & Henry (1994a), Bittner & Rongstad (1982), Cameron (1958), Corbet (1983), Dixon et al. (1983), Fitzgerald & Keith (1990), Flux (1983), Flux & Angermann (1990), Gray (1993), Hall (1951), Hamilton (1973), Hearn et al. (1987), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Johnsen (1953), Lissovsky (2016), Loukashkin (1943), Macpherson & Manning (1959), Manniche (1910), Merceret al. (1981), Murray (2003), Murray & Smith (2008b), Nelson (1909), Parker (1977), Pruitt (1960), Richardson (1829a), Soper (1944), Sutton & Hamilton (1932), Waltari & Cook (2005), Wu Chunhua et al. (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 144-145, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr, Russell A. Mittermeier (2016): Leporidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 107-148, ISBN: 978-84-941892-3-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6625539

12. San Jose Brush Rabbit Sylvilagus mansuetus French: Lapin de San José / German: San-José-Strauchkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de San José Taxonomy. Sylvilagus mansuetus Nelson, 1907, “San José Island, Gulf of California [Baja California del Sur], Mexico.” This species is an insular allospecies closely related to S. bachmani on the adjacent peninsula of Baja California. Formerly, S. mansuetus was placed as a subspecies of S. bachmani. Sylvilagus mansuetus and S. bachmani are the only species of Sylvilagus known to have retained the putative ancestral karyotype (2n = 48), shared by all known species of Lepus and Romerolagus. Monotypic. Distribution. SW San José I, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Descriptive notes. Head-body 340 mm, tail 44 mm, ear 60 mm, hindfoot 73 mm; weight ¢.800 g (all measurements from a single individual). The San Jose Brush Rabbit is one of the smaller species of Sylvilagus. Dorsal fur and head are pale buffy or yellowish gray. Sides are paler and grayer than back. Ears are gray, and nape is dull and pale ocherous buff. Forelegs are ocherous clay and shade into dingy white forefeet. Posterior surface of hindlegs is browner than back, and top of hindfeet are white. Throat is paler than sides, and ventral fur is white. Habitat. Desert habitat restricted to the south-western coastal plains of the San José Island. Desert habitat consists of primarily seven plant species: jojoba (Simmondsia chinensts, Simmondsiaceae); blue palo verde (Cercidium peninsulare, Fabaceae); Maytenus phyllanthoides (Fabaceae); Adam’s trees (Fouquieria diguetii, Fouquieriaceae); Stenocerus thurbei and S. gummosus (both Cactaceae); and ashy limberbush (Jatropha cinerea, Euphorbiaceae). Five San Jose Brush Rabbits were observed to rest in shade of blue palo verde trees. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. Two pregnant San Jose Brush Rabbits with two embryos each and two lactating females were recorded in November 2008. Two nests also were found. One nest was in the base of a cardon cactus near a desert thorn (Lycium sp., Solanaceae). Its entrance was 11 cm x 12 cm wide, and den was 15 cm deep, with a total length of 8:5 cm. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, and small branches of desert thorn. Two dead young were found in the nest. The other nest was at the base of a cholla (Opuntia cholla, Cactaceae). Entrance was 8-5 x 10-5 cm wide, and den was 12 cm deep. Nest was lined with fur, dry leaves of blue palo verde, small branches of ashy limberbush, and desert thorn. No young were found in the nest. Activity patterns. San Jose Brush Rabbits are most active between sunset and 02:00 h and from ¢.06:00 h to 10:00 h. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Critically Endangered on The IUCN Red List. Maximum total population of the San Jose Brush Rabbit is estimated at 500-700 individuals, but it might be significantly lower. Informal surveys conducted in 1995 and 1996 were compared with quantitative surveys in 2008, and it was concluded that the population had declined but the magnitude of decline was not quantified. These surveys restricted distribution to the south-western coastal plain at 10 m above sea level, which reduced the extent of occurrence to only 20 km? in a single continuous population. This is the smallest distribution of any lagomorph species. Major conservation threats to the San Jose Brush Rabbit are feral cats and maybe domestic dogs; habitat loss and competition with feral goats; illegal hunting; development of a tourist area including a golf course, private airport, and small marina; and planned reactivation of a salt mine. Management recommendations include enforcement of protected status of the San Jose Brush Rabbit, with goals of stopping hunting and removal of feral cats and goats. All wildlife on San José Island, including the San Jose Brush Rabbit, is protected under Mexican law. Research is needed on its biology, ecology, population status, genetics, and potential for inbreeding depression due to its small population and distribution. Bibliography. Cervantes, Lorenzo et al. (1996), Chapman & Ceballos (1990), Hall (1981), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Lorenzo & Alvarez-Castarieda (2011), Lorenzo etal. (2011), Nelson (1907, 1909), Thomas & Best (1994a)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 115, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

8. Pygmy Rabbit Brachylagus idahoensis French: Lapin pygmée / German: Zwergkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo pigmeo Taxonomy. Lepus idahoensis Merriam, 1891, “Pahsimeroi Valley [near Goldburg, Custer County], Idaho,” USA. This species was formerly included in Lepus and Sylvilagus. At one time, B. idahoensis was placed with S. bachmani in Microlagus. Analysis of dental patterns showed a close relationship to Nesolagus. It has been interpreted as being either a primitive lagomorph or as derived from Sylvilagus. It is widely sympatric with Sylvilagus nuttalli and perhaps overlaps narrowly with S. audubonii. Monotypic. Distribution. Most of the Great Basin and some of the adjacent intermountain areas of W USA,from SE Oregon and NE California through most of C & N Nevada to S Idaho, extreme SW Montana, extreme W Wyoming, and W Utah. An isolated reintroduced population exists in WC Washington. Descriptive notes. Head-body 230-310 mm, tail 15-24 mm, ear 56-64 mm, hindfoot 67-76 mm; weight 246-458 g. The Pygmy Rabbit is small, with short and rounded ears. Dorsalfur is buffy gray, and nape, chest, and legs are cinnamon buff. Hindlegs are relatively short, and hindfeet are broad and heavily haired. Ears are densely haired inside and outside, and their edges are buff. Tail is inconspicuous with a buff underside. The Pygmy Rabbit has one molt per year in midto late summer. New pelageis long, almost silky, and gray above, with abdomen being white. Fur changes in autumn and winter are due to wear and abrasion, and pelage appearssilver gray. Habitat. Primarily plains and alluvial fans dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentate, Asteraceae) growing in tall dense stands at elevations of ¢.1370-2135 m in Nevada and ¢.1520-1615 m in California. The Pygmy Rabbit often occurs in the same habitat as the Black-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) and the White-tailed Jackrabbit (L. townsendir). A high degree of vegetation cover appears to be a major habitat feature selected by the Pygmy Rabbit. Densities of big sagebrush in areas used by the Pygmy Rabbit exceed those found throughout most of the plant’s distribution. Usually, heavy grazing increases density of big sagebrush. After grazing ceases and grass cover has recovered, habitat becomes optimal for Pygmy Rabbits. This suggests that they are opportunistic, inhabiting disturbed sites in the sagebrush landscape that have an increased density of sagebrush. Intense feeding activity by Pygmy Rabbits near their burrows might sustain or even increase density of sagebrush. Pygmy Rabbits extensively use burrows that they mainly construct by themselves, so soil structure is thought to be another key habitat feature. Soft deep soils are required for burrowing. Burrows typically have 4-5 entrances but up to ten or only two have been recorded. Entrances are located at bases of sagebrush. Burrows are usually found on slopes and are oriented in a north-to-east direction. Entrance diameters are 10-12 cm. Tunnels widen below the surface, form chambers, and extend to a maximum depth of c.1 m. Pygmy Rabbits also use holes among volcanic rocks, in stone walls, around abandoned buildings, and those made by American Badgers (7axidea taxus) and Yellow-bellied Marmots (Marmola flaviventris). Dense stands of big sagebrush growing adjacent to streams, along fences, and in borrow ditches along roads might be used by dispersing Pygmy Rabbits. Food and Feeding. Preferred diet of the Pygmy Rabbit is big sagebrush (A. tridentata); individuals sometimes even climb into tops of larger plants to feed. Big sagebrush consists up to 99% of the Pygmy Rabbit's food intake in winter. Grasses (Agropyron spp. and Poa spp., both Poaceae) are more important, with 30-40% ofdiets in midto late summer. A study investigating characteristics of browsed vs. unbrowsed big sagebrush showed that higher crude protein increased chances that plants would be browsed by Pygmy Rabbits, and the opposite was the case for certain plant secondary metabolites. Breeding. Testes of male Pygmy Rabbits increase progressively in size beginning in January, peaking in March, and regressing in June. Time of reproduction is dependent on female readiness, which is influenced by photoperiod and vegetative condition of the habitat. A study based on DNA analysis found multiple paternities in the same litter, suggesting that the Pygmy Rabbit has a promiscuous mating system. Pregnant females were collected from late February through late March in Utah and from late March through late May in Idaho. Mating behavior of captive Pygmy Rabbits consisted of chasing and brief copulations, and gestation lasted for 24 days. Females give birth in natal burrows that are separate from residential burrow systems. Natal burrows have a single entrance leading to a nest chamber. Entrances to natal burrows are backfilled with soil and often located at bases of shrubs. Female Pygmy Rabbits returned to burrows to nurse 1-2 times/day in captivity. Litter size averages 5-9 young (range 4-8 young). A maximum ofthree litters per year has been reported in Idaho. Pygmy Rabbits start breeding after their first winter of life. Adult and juvenile sex ratios were not significantly different from 1:1 in Idaho. Activity patterns. Pygmy Rabbits are active any time within the 24hour period, but they are generally crepuscular and highly active in the morning except in winter. Activity level seems to increase at higher elevations with extreme weather conditions. Pygmy Rabbits usually rest near or inside their burrows throughout the day, but they also feed at midday. Forms under vegetation are used during daytime. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Extensive and well-used runways of Pygmy Rabbits interlace sage thickets and provide travel and escape routes. Individuals apparently make networks of trails beneath snow at bases of big sagebrush that increase feeding areas in winter. Movementis confined to a small area (30 m radius) around the burrow in winter, with longer movements in spring and summer. Some male Pygmy Rabbits move longer distances (e.g. up to 3-5 km in two days or 1200 km in one day) during the breeding season, probably in search of females. Mean home range were 37-2 ha for females and 67-9 ha for males. Males used more burrow systems and more widely dispersed burrow systems than females. There seems to be no significant evidence of a sex bias in dispersal, but juvenile females (mean = 2-9 km, range =0-02-11-9 km) disperse farther than males (1 km, 0-03-6-5 km). Several individuals might occupy the same burrow, especially when frightened, but one adult per burrow is typical. During the reproductive season, male and female Pygmy Rabbits have been captured from the same burrow. An aggregation of 45 rabbits/ha in Idaho was reported, but it is unclear whether or notthis aggregation was due to ideal habitat or social behavior. Pygmy Rabbits make several vocalizations. They emit a loud squeal when captured as is typical of lagomorphs. An alarm call and two additional vocalizations (a squeak and a chuckle) were identified. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Population status of the Pygmy Rabbitis extremely varied across its discontinuous distribution. It is locally threatened in parts ofits distribution. The Pygmy Rabbit is not ubiquitous overthis distribution but is restricted to areas of preferred habitat. A small, isolated, reintroduced population exists in Washington after the Columbia Basin population was extirpated by 2004. Habitat loss likely accounts for isolation of the Washington population. In other parts of its distribution, healthy populations remain in areas of expansive habitat. Primary threat to the Pygmy Rabbit is fragmentation of sagebrush rangeland, particularly on edges of its distribution. As these habitat patches become smaller, local extirpations of Pygmy Rabbits might occur. Probability of extirpation increases through overgrazing, uncontrolled wildfires, habitat modification, or genetic drift combined with stochastic events. Nevertheless, the fact that the Pygmy Rabbit can use sites that were once disturbed by grazing and have reverted to big sagebrush indicates that suitable habitat can be created. Where isolated populations of Pygmy Rabbits exist, corridors can be created to connect sites and thereby reduce chances of local extirpation. Bibliography. Beauvais et al. (2008), Campbell et al. (1982), Corbet (1983), Dobler & Dixon (1990), Elias et al. (2006), Ellison (1960), Estes-Zumpf & Rachlow (2009), Estes-Zumpf et al. (2010), Falcén et al. (2011), Green (1978), Green & Flinders (1980a, 1980b), Grinnell et al. (1930), Heady & Laundré (2005), Hibbard (1963), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Janson (1946), Johnson et al. (1950), Katzner (1994), Katzner & Parker (1997), Larrucea & Brussard (2008, 2009), Lee, J.E. et al. (2010), Nelson (1909), Orr (1940), Pritchett et al. (1987), Rachlow et al. (2005), Sanchez & Rachlow (2008), Schmalz et al. (2014), Stephenson (1966), Ulappa et al. (2014), Weiss & Verts (1984), Wilde (1978)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 112-113, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

54. Broom Hare Lepus castroviejoi French: Liévre de Castroviejo / German: Castroviejo-Hase / Spanish: Liebre de piornal Taxonomy. Lepus castroviejoi Palacios, 1976, “Puerto de la Ventana, San Emiliano (Leon [Province]),” (= Puerto Ventanas, Spain, 1500 m). It was initially described as a new hare species in 1976—the third species of Lepus besides L. granatensis and L. europaeus in the Iberian Peninsula—based on different body and skull measurements, dental and skull characteristics, and pelage color and pattern. Nevertheless, this new species was not accepted as distinct because differences in morphological and molecular characteristics were not large enough between L. castroviejoi and L. europaeus to justify species status. Additional data from protein markers and nuclear and mtDNA supported the existence of the three species in the Iberian Peninsula. This species is morphologically and genetically similar to L. corsicanus from Italy. The two species are sister taxa and might have had a common ancestor occupying a large distributional area in southwestern Europe between Italy and Spain before expansion of L. europaeus. Nevertheless, another recent genetic study of nDNA casts doubt on the specific status of L. cor sicanus and L. castroviejor; results suggest that they might be conspecific. Monotypic. Distribution. Cantabrian Range between Serra dos Ancares and Sierra de Pena Labra (N Spain). Descriptive notes. Head-body 490-510 mm, tail 78-96 mm, ear 90-100 mm, hindfoot 135-145 mm; weight 2.7-3.2 kg. The Broom Hare is medium-sized, with tawny brown pelage similar in color and texture to the European Hare (L. europaeus). The Broom Hare seems to closely resemble the European Hare but generally has more brownish yellow pelage than the latter. The Broom Hare has clear contrast between ventral and dorsal pelage and grayish white facial arc. Habitat. Mountainous broom and heathlands, consisting mainly of Erica, Calluna, and Vaccinium (all Ericaceae) with considerable shrub cover of Cytisus, Genista (both Fabaceae), and Juniperus (Cupressaceae) and clearings in mixed deciduous woods of beech (Fagus) and oak (Quercus), both Fagaceae. The Broom Hare lives in mountains at elevations of 1300-1900 m but descends in winter to ¢.1000 m to avoid snow. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. Reproductive season of the Broom Hare occurs in April-September. Females have 1-3 young/litter. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Broom Hare is listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats as a part of L. capensis sensu lato and listed as endangered in Spain. It is common at high elevations in its distribution, except for the western edge in Serra dos Ancares where itis isolated during summer and hunted excessively. A substantial part ofits area of occupancy lies within reserves. Its range is ¢.230 km from east to west and 25-40 km from north to south. Nevertheless, distribution of the Broom Hare is fragmented because it occupies highly specialized patches of scarce habitat. Population declines have been recorded along the northern part of its distribution and in marginal habitat in which it occurs. Besides overhunting, major threats are predation, poisoning (fertilizer and pesticides), and habitat change. Recommendations are to restrict hunting in the western edge ofits distribution and restore altered and unsuitable habitat. Establishment of corridors among fragmented populations to prevent inbreeding also should be considered. Research should be conducted to improve knowledge of biology, ecology, and genetics of the Broom Hare. Bibliography. Acevedo et al. (2007), Alves, Ferrand et al. (2003), Alves, Melo-Ferreira et al. (2008), Angermann (1983), Bonhomme et al. (1986), Corbet & Hill (1986), Estonba et al. (2006), Flux & Angermann (1990), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Koutsogiannouli et al. (2012), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palacios (1976, 1983, 1989, 1996), Palacios & Ramos (1979), Pérez-Suérez et al. (1994), Schneider & Leipoldt (1983), Smith & Johnston (2008;)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 142, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

28. Manzano Mountain Cottontail Sylvilagus cognatus French: Lapin des Manzano / German: Manzano-Baumwollschwanzkaninchen / Spanish: Conejo de Manzano Taxonomy. Sylvilagus cognatus Nelson, 1907, “10,000 feet [3048 m] altitude, near summit of Manzano Mountains, New Mexico,” USA. Restricted by J. K. Frey, R. D. Fisher and L. A. Ruedas in 1997 to “...vicinity of Rea Ranch...1-9 km N and 13-4 km W of Tajique (TON, NE 1/4 of NW 1/4 Sec. 9, N34°45'05-39”, W106°25°18-04”) on the NE side of Bosque Peak, at 2880 m elevation.” Formerly, S. cognatus was included in S. floridanus. Monotypic. Distribution. Manzano Mts of New Mexico (SUSA). Descriptive notes. Head-body 450 mm, tail 65 mm, ear 70 mm, hindfoot 102 mm (all measurements are means from five specimens). No specific data are available for body weight. Dorsal fur of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail is light grayish buff, similar to the Robust Cottontail (S. robustus), but it is a little more buff or browner on ears. Habitat. At the type locality, upper montane coniferous forest of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and white fir (Abies concolor), small patches of subalpine coniferous forest of Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpa var. arizonica), all Pinaceae; subalpine montane grassland; and montane scrub. Food and Feeding. There is no information available for this species. Breeding. There is no information available for this species. Activity patterns. There is no information available for this species. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is no information available for this species. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. Almost nothing is known about status, distribution, and threats to the Manzano Mountain Cottontail. It is probably threatened in its small distribution. Only three locations of the Manzano Mountain Cottontail are known: the type locality, eastern slope of the Sandia Mountains at 2590 m where a specimen was found in 1956, and near Sandia Crest at 3550 m where an individual was likely sighted in 1956. The Manzano Mountain Cottontail might be threatened by habitat loss, drought, and wildfire. Research is needed on its population status, distribution, threats, genetics, biology, and ecology, followed by establishment of appropriate management plans and protected areas. Bibliography. Dick-Peddie (1993), Frey et al. (1997), Hall & Kelson (1959), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Ivey (1957), Nelson (1909), Smith & Boyer (2008e)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 124-125, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539

53. European Hare Lepus europaeus French: Liévre d'Europe / German: Feldhase / Spanish: Liebre europea Other common names: Brown Hare, European Brown Hare Taxonomy. Lepus europaeus Pallas, 1778, type locality not given. Restricted by Esl. Trouessart in 1910 to “Poland.” It was formerly included in L. capensis based on a cline in morphological characteristics (mainly size) from north-east ern Africa eastward across the northern Arabian Peninsula, Middle East, and northward through Israel to Turkey. In Kazakhstan, where the large “ europaeus ” and the small “ capensis ” (= tolar) live in sympatry without hybridization, the interpretation was of the overlapping ends of a ring species. A reanalysis showed a discontinuity between smaller “ capensis ” and larger “ europaeus ” running from the eastern Mediterranean coast through Iran. This is the basis on which L. europaeusis separated from L. capensis and L. tolai. In Iran, east of the border of the distribution of L. europaeus, L. tolai occurs apparently in allopatry or parapatry with L. europaeus. Nevertheless, recent evidence suggests that the hypothesis of conspecific status of L. europaeus and L. capensis may be correct. A study of the nuclear gene pool of L. capensis, L. europaeus, and North African species of Lepus indicated that North African species and L. europaeus belong to L. capensis. Nevertheless, a study of mtDNA of these three groups indicated a significant degree of divergence supporting species-specific designation. These studies show that genetic differentiation between L. capensis and L. europaeus might be attributed to geographical separation rather than divergence. It has been speculated that gene flow may occur in the Middle East where distributions meet and may result in intergraded populations. Until conclusive evidence of a single species complex is available to support a change in taxonomic status of L. europaeus, it remains a distinct species. Subspecies are recognized based mainly in size and color. Studies conducted in the USSR on differences in summer fur color and fur structure showed a tendency for clinal variation. Geographic variation has been shown for winter fur color and metric characters of skulls of L. europaeus. Thus the reality of existence of all subspecific forms described for the USSR seems very doubtful. As taxonomists are still trying to clarify the species differentiation in Lepus, the subspecific taxonomy is not elaborated yet. Hence, the distinction in subspecies might be arbitrary and unreasonable throughout the range of L. europaeus. Molecular phylogenetic studies in Spain have shown that the Cantabrian population has unique mtDNA relative to other European populations. Sixteen subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. L.e.europaeusPallas,1778—WesternEurope. L. e. caspicus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Lower Volga, Kalmykia (Russia) and W Kazakhstan. JR e. connor Robinson, 1918 — NW Iran. e. creticus Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Crete (Greece). a e. cyprius Barrett-Hamilton, 1903 — Cyprus. e. cyrensis Satunin, 1905 — Azerbaijan, Transcaucasia. a e. hybridus Desmarest, 1822 — Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, Finland, W & C Russia. Sl e. judeae Gray, 1867 — Palestine. aE e. karpathorum Hilzheimer, 1906 — Carpathian Mts. all e. medius Nilsson, 1820 — Denmark. al e. occidentalis de Winton, 1898 — Great Britain. ul e. parnassius Miller, 1903 — C Greece. el. e. ponticus Ognev, 1929 — Black Sea coast (Russia). ul. e. rhodius Festa, 1914 — Rhodes (Greece). Bl e. syriacus Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1832 — Syria. ab. e. transsylvanicus Matschie, 1901 — E & SE Europe. The European Hare originated from grasslands in the Middle East, and from there, it has spread into agricultural areas of Europe. The distribution today includes European lowland areas from S Scandinavia to the N & NE Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean Is (Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus), and extends E to W Siberian and W Mongolian lowlands and S to N Israel, N Syria, N Iraq, the Tigris-Euphrates Valley, and NW Iran. Ancient introduction into Great Britain (shaded in the map). In more recent times this species was widely introduced as a game species into S Sweden, N Ireland, Corsica, SE Canada to NE USA, South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Paraguay), Australia, New Zealand, and several islands, including Barbados, Réunion, and the Falkland (Malvinas) Is. Descriptive notes. Head—body 550-680 mm, tail 75-140 mm, ear 100-140 mm, hindfoot 124-185 mm; weight 3.5-5 kg. The European Hare has tawny or rusty fur. Dorsal pelage is darker than chest and sides. Fur on back is long and curled. Ventral pelage is white. Ears are pale gray, with large triangular black patches on backs of tips. Tail is black on top and white underneath. There is some white on sides of head and bases of ears, and haunches are gray during winter. Geographical variation is low among mainland populations due to high mobility and occupation of continuous habitats. Geographical variation is also obscured by translocations by humans. Habitat. Temperate open woodland, farmland with pastures, grasslands, moorland, saltmarsh, steppes, and sub-desert from sea level to elevations of ¢.2300 m. High densities of European Hares are reached on arable land. In Chile, Argentina, Australia, and New Zealand, where no other species of Lepus occurs, European Hares also inhabits pampas, sand dunes, marshes, and alpine fellfield (slopes). Many surveys have investigated habitat preferences of European Hares. In all studies,fallow land is preferred consistently, and residential areas are avoided. There is a positive association with abundance and habitat diversity. Food and Feeding. European Hares feed predominantly on cultivated crops, weeds, and grasses. A study investigating dietary preferences showed that they positively selected forbs and grasses. Furthermore, chemical analysis revealed that they select food for high-energy content (crude fat and crude protein) and avoid crude fiber. During feeding, dominance hierarchies among individuals have been demonstrated. Breeding. Reproduction of European Hares takes place from winter solstice until the end of summer, with a peak in spring (“March madness”). During the peak, males congregate around a female in estrus. The female boxes and chases off males. Female European Hares have 1-5 litters/year, with an average ofthree litters per year. Females have between 4-6 young/year in Argentina and 13 young/year in the Czech Republic, but in most populations, females are remarkably consistent at ¢.10 young/year. Litter size can vary with respect to season, with smaller litters produced earlier and larger litters later. Superfetation (a female ovulates while pregnant and then carries both embryos and fetuses) is common in captivity and reduces normal gestation of¢.42 days to ¢.38 days. In the wild, superfetation is less common. Nursing takes place once per day, about one hour after sunset, and lasts only a few minutes. Females reach maturity at 7-8 months old and males at ¢.6 months old. Young from the firstlitters of the year may breed in theirfirst year. Where sympatric, European Hares and Mountain Hares (L. timidus) can hybridize and produce fertile offspring. Activity patterns. European Hares are mostly nocturnal. In winter, activity starts with regularity shortly after sunset and ends shortly before sunrise. In summer, activity is less consistently tied to the dark period so that active European Hares can be regularly observed in full daylight. With GPS telemetry, it was possible to gain new knowledge on daily activity patterns of European Hares during summer. If sunset was early and sunrise late, evening and morning activity peaks occurred during the dark phase. This was the case in late spring and early autumn when nights are longer. When sunset was late and sunrise was early, activity peaked in full daylight. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Distances between areas used during activity and inactivity are 122-306 m in agricultural areas and are shorter when field sizes are small than when field sizes are large. Home ranges are 12-330 ha, depending on study area. A recent study using GPS-collars showed that European Hares in an agricultural landscape with small field sizes used a confined space during the daily resting phase (on average 200 m?*), and home ranges during the active phase were c.3 ha. The European Hare lives alone but can be observed in small groups during reproduction season or when densities are high. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The European Hare is widespread and mostly abundant throughout its distribution. Since 1910, however, populations evidently have decreased throughout Europe due to industrialization of agriculture. The European Hare is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Several countries have placed the European Hare on their red lists as near threatened or threatened. There is growing concern regarding status of regional forms of the European Hare. A meta-study, reviewing literature from twelve European countries and comparing population densities related to habitat characteristics, concluded that the primary cause of declines of the European Hare was agricultural intensification. Abundance was negatively associated to predation. Field size, temperature, precipitation, and hunting had no effect on densities. In Greece, Spain, France, and Denmark, restocking of European Hares from other regions or countries to supplement densities for hunting has been identified as a threat to regional gene pools. Diseases such as the European Brown Hare Syndrome (EBHS), pasteurellosis, yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis), coccidiosis, and tularaemia are additional threats because they have been identified as principle causes of mortalities of European Hares in some regions. Bibliography. Angermann (1972, 1983, 2016), Averianov et al. (2003), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2008), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi & Ben Ammar Elgaaied (2005), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Memmi, Sert et al. (2006), Ben Slimen, Suchentrunk, Stamatis et al. (2008), Bertolino, Cordero di Montezemolo & Perrone (2011), Bertolino, Perrone et al. (2011), Broekhuizen & Maaskamp (1980, 1982), Chapuis (1990), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), Flux (1965, 1967b, 1981a), Flux & Angermann (1990), Frylestam (1986), Hewson (1991), Hoffmann & Smith (2005), Holley (2001), Homolka (1986, 1987), Kovacs & Buza (1988), Kunst etal. (2001), Lincoln (1974), LindIof (1978), Lissovsky (2016), Long (2003), Macdonald & Barrett (1993), Mamuris etal. (2001), Marboutin & Aebischer (1996), Martinet (1977), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Monaghan & Metcalfe (1985), Palacios et al. (2004), Pépin (1989), Pépin & Cargnelutti (1994), Petter (1961), Pielowski (1972), Reichlin et al. (2006), Reitz & Léonard (1994), Roedenbeck & Voser (2008), Riihe & Hohmann (2004), de la Sancha et al. (2009), Schai-Braun & Hacklander (2014), Schai-Braun, Reichlin et al. (2015), Schai-Braun, Rédel & Hacklander (2012), Schai-Braun, Weber & Hacklander (2013), Schneider (1978), Smith, A.T. & Johnston (2008i), Smith, R.K., Jennings & Harris (2005), Smith, R.K., Jennings, Robinson & Harris (2004), Sokolov et al. (2009), Spitzenberger (2001), Stott (2003), Tapper & Barnes (1986), Trouessart (1910), Vaughan et al. (2003), Vidus-Rosin et al. (2009)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson, Thomas E. Lacher, Jr & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2016, Leporidae, pp. 107-148 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 6 Lagomorphs and Rodents I, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 141-142, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6625539