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Information regarding squalene synthases (SQSs) from prokaryotes is scarce. We aimed to characterize the SQS from Methylococcus capsulatus. We studied its reaction mechanism by kinetic analysis and evaluated the structure of the substrate/inhibitor-binding sites via homology modeling. The cloned M. capsulatus SQS was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid column chromatography. Interestingly, M. capsulatus SQS was water-soluble and did not require any detergent for its higher activity, unlike other SQSs studied previously; supplementation of any type of detergent inhibited enzyme activity. The specific activity and the kinetic values (Km and kcat) for the substrate farnesyl diphosphate and NADPH are reported. The substrate analog farnesyl methylenediphosphonate showed potent inhibition toward the enzyme. We prepared the sitespecific mutants directed at potential active-site residues 58DXX61E62D (S1 site) and 213DXX216D217D (S2 site), which were assumed to be involved in the binding of the substrate farnesyl diphosphate through the Mg2+ion. We first demonstrated that the S1 site and the two basic residues (R55 and K212) were responsible for the binding of farnesyl diphosphate. Furthermore, we examined the catalytic roles of the highly conserved aromatic residues and demonstrated that the Y164 residue abstracts the proton of cation 5, which is produced during the first half-reaction (Scheme 1), to afford presqualene diphosphate, and that the W224 residue stabilizes the intermediary cation 5 via the cation-π interaction. Furthermore, we confirm for the first time that the F32 and the Y51 residues also stabilize the carbocation intermediate(s) generated during the second half-reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background We aimed to clarify associations between prior anticoagulation and short- or long-term clinical outcomes in ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Methods and Results A total of 1189 ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation who were hospitalized within 7 days after onset were analyzed. Of these, 813 patients (68.4%) received no prior anticoagulation, 310 (26.1%) received prior warfarin treatment with an international normalized ratio ( INR ) <2 on admission, 28 (2.4%) received prior warfarin treatment with an INR ≥2 on admission, and the remaining 38 (3.2%) received prior direct oral anticoagulant treatment. Prior warfarin treatment was associated with a lower risk of death or disability at 3 months compared with no prior anticoagulation ( INR <2: adjusted odds ratio: 0.58; 95% CI, 0.42-0.81; P=0.001; INR ≥2: adjusted odds ratio: 0.40; 95% CI, 0.16-0.97; P=0.043) but was not associated with a lower risk of death or disability at 2 years. Prior warfarin treatment with an INR ≥2 on admission was associated with a higher risk of ischemic events within 2 years compared with no prior anticoagulation (adjusted hazard ratio: 2.94; 95% CI, 1.20-6.15; P=0.021). Conclusions Prior warfarin treatment was associated with a lower risk of death or disability at 3 months but was not associated with a lower risk of death or disability at 2 years in ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Prior warfarin treatment with an INR ≥2 on admission was associated with a higher risk of ischemic events within 2 years. Clinical Trial Registration URL : http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT 01581502.