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Summary: The immune system evolved to protect organisms from invading pathogens. A network of pro‐ and anti‐inflammatory cell types equipped with special effector molecules guarantees efficient elimination of intruders like viruses and bacteria. However, imbalances can lead to an excessive response of effector cells incurring autoimmune or allergic diseases. An interplay of genetic and environmental factors contributes to autoimmune diseases and recent studies provided evidence for an impact of dietary habits on the immune status and related disorders. Western societies underwent a change in lifestyle associated with changes in food consumption. Salt (sodium chloride) is one component prevalent in processed food frequently consumed in western countries. Here we summarize recent advances in understanding the mechanisms behind the effects of sodium chloride on immune cells like regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper (TH) 17 cells and its implication as a risk factor for several diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Our recent studies show that the reduced activity of epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in endothelial cells accounts for the adaptation of vasculature to salt in Sprague-Dawley rats. The present study examines a hypothesis that enhanced ENaC activity mediates the loss of vasorelaxation in Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats.Experimental Approach: We used the cell-attached patch-clamp technique to record ENaC activity in split-open mesenteric arteries. Western blot and immunofluorescence staining were used to evaluate the levels of aldosterone, ENaC, eNOS and NO. Blood pressure was measured with the tail-cuff method and the artery relaxation was measured with the wire myograph assay.Key Results: High-salt (HS) diet significantly increased plasma aldosterone and ENaC activity in the endothelial cells of Dahl SS rats. The endothelium-dependent artery relaxation was blunted by HS challenge in these rats. Amiloride, a potent blocker of ENaC, increased both phosphorylated eNOS and NO and therefore prevented the HS-induced loss of vasorelaxation. As, in SS rats, endogenous aldosterone was already elevated by HS challenge, exogenous aldosterone did not further elevate ENaC activity in the rats fed with HS. Eplerenone, a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, attenuated the effects of HS on both ENaC activity and artery relaxation.Conclusions and Implications: These data suggest that HS diet blunts artery relaxation and causes hypertension via a pathway associated with aldosterone-dependent activation of ENaC in endothelial cells. This pathway provides one of the mechanisms by which HS causes hypertension in Dahl SS rats.Linked Articles: This article is part of a themed section on Spotlight on Small Molecules in Cardiovascular Diseases. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.8/issuetoc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We previously reported an alfalfa half-sib family, HS-B, with improved salt tolerance, compared to parental plants, P-B. In this study, we conducted additional experiments to address potential physiological mechanisms that may contribute to salt tolerance in HS-B. Vegetatively propagated HS-B and P-B plants were treated with a nutrient solution (control) or a nutrient solution containing NaCl ( EC = 12 dS/m). Shoots and roots were harvested at various time points after treatment for quantification of proline, soluble sugar, and H2O2 using spectrophotometers. Subcellular localization and quantification of Na in roots were conducted using a Na+-specific dye under a confocal microscope. HS-B produced 86 and 89% greater shoot and root dry biomass, respectively, compared to parental plants, P-B, under salinity in the greenhouse. Under saline conditions the HS-B shoots accumulated 115% and roots 55% more soluble sugars than P-B counterparts. The non-saline HS-B shoots, however, showed 72% less soluble sugars than the non-saline P-B plants. Under saline conditions HS-B accumulated 39% less proline in shoots, while roots accumulated 56% more proline, compared to their P-B parents. HS-B plants also showed a greater reduction of stomatal conductance under mild saline stress. HS-B shoots and roots contained 3-4 times less reactive oxygen species (H2O2) after salt treatment compared to P-B plants. Sodium localization and distribution analysis using Na+-specific dye revealed HS-B plants accumulated 88% and 48% less Na+ in stele and xylem vessels compared to P-B. The study provides insights into the potential mechanisms that may contribute to salt tolerance in HS-B: maintaining RWC by accumulating soluble sugars while reducing transpiration, maintaining healthy status by reducing oxidative stresses, and preventing salt toxicity by reducing accumulation of Na+ inside root cells and xylem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Barramundi minced muscle with salt 10 g kg−1 and 20 g kg−1 added is gelled by different combinations of pressurisation (300, 400 and 500 MPa at 4 °C for 10 min), cooking (0.1 MPa, 90 °C for 30 min) and setting (0.1 MPa, 50 °C for 2 h) to improve mechanical properties of barramundi gels and reduce salt added to barramundi gels. RESULTS At the low salt concentration of 10 g kg−1, pressurisation prior to cooking (P-C) treatment induced barramundi gels with comparable mechanical properties and water-holding capacity to those of conventional heat induced ( HI) gels with 20 g kg−1 added salt. At salt concentration of 20 g kg−1, pressurisation prior to setting (P-S) and P-C gels exhibited higher mechanical properties and water-holding capacity as compared to HI gels. Scanning electron microscopy images showed a smooth and dense microstructure of P-C and P-S gels whereas the microstructure of HI gels is rough and less compact. CONCLUSIONS P-C treatment can reduce salt concentration added to barramundi gels to 10 g kg−1. P-S and P-C treatment can result in higher mechanical and functional properties of barramundi gels at conventional salt concentration (20 g kg−1) as compared to HI gels. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses impact of changing sodium landscape and focuses on the ecological role played by fungi in mediating effects of increasing or decreasing sodium levels in biomes and role played by sodium in physiology of fungi.

As the numbers of chemical contaminants in freshwater ecosystems increase, it is important to understand whether contaminants interact in ecologically important ways. The present study investigated the independent and interactive effects of 2 contaminants that frequently co-occur in freshwater environments among higher latitudes, including a commonly applied insecticide (carbaryl) and road salt (NaCl). The hypothesis was that the addition of either contaminant would result in a decline in zooplankton, an algal bloom, and the subsequent decline of both periphyton and periphyton consumers. Another hypothesis was that combining the contaminants would result in synergistic effects on community responses. Outdoor mesocosms were used with communities that included phytoplankton, periphyton, zooplankton, amphipods, clams, snails, and tadpoles. Communities were exposed to 4 environmentally relevant concentrations of salt (27 mg Cl- L−1, 77 mg Cl- L−1, 277 mg Cl- L−1, and 727 mg Cl- L−1) fully crossed with 4 carbaryl treatments (ethanol, 0 µg L−1, 5 µg L−1, and 50 µg L−1) over 57 d. Contaminants induced declines in rotifer and cladoceran zooplankton, but only carbaryl induced an algal bloom. Consumers exhibited both positive and negative responses to contaminants, which were likely the result of both indirect community interactions and direct toxicity. In contrast to the hypothesis, no synergistic effects were found, although copepod densities declined when high concentrations of both chemicals were combined. The results suggest that low concentrations of salt and carbaryl are likely to have mostly independent effects on aquatic communities. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:771-779. © 2016 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key points Recent studies have shown that high salt (HS) intake leads to endothelial dysfunction and impaired vascular reactivity in different vascular beds in both animal and human models, due to increased oxidative stress., The objective of this study was to assess vascular response to flow-induced dilatation (FID) and to elucidate the role of vascular oxidative stress/antioxidative capacity in middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) of HS-fed rats in vitro., The novelty of this study is in demonstrating impaired flow-induced dilatation of MCAs and down-regulation of vascular antioxidant genes with HS intake, leading to increased levels of oxidative stress in blood vessels and peripheral lymph organs, which together contribute to impaired FID., In addition, results show increased oxidative stress in leukocytes of peripheral lymph organs, suggesting the occurrence of inflammatory processes due to HS intake., Recirculation of leukocytes might additionally increase vascular oxidative stress in vivo., Abstract The aim of this study was to determine flow-induced dilatation (FID) and the role of oxidative stress/antioxidative capacity in isolated, pressurized middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) of high salt (HS)-fed rats. Healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats (11 weeks old) were fed low salt (0.4% NaCl; LS group) or high salt (4% NaCl; HS group) diets for 1 week. Reactivity of MCAs in response to stepwise increases in pressure gradient (Δ10-Δ100 mmHg) was determined in the absence or presence of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic TEMPOL and/or the nitric oxide synthases (NOS) inhibitor Nω-nitro- l-arginine methyl ester ( l-NAME). mRNA levels of antioxidative enzymes, NAPDH-oxidase components, inducible (iNOS) and endothelial nitric oxide synthases (eNOS) were determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Blood pressure (BP), antioxidant enzymes activity, oxidative stress in peripheral leukocytes, lipid peroxidation products and the antioxidant capacity of plasma were measured for both groups. FID was reduced in the HS group compared to the LS group. The presence of TEMPOL restored dilatation in the HS group, with no effect in the LS group. Expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) and iNOS in the HS group was significantly decreased; oxidative stress was significantly higher in the HS group compared to the LS group. HS intake significantly induced basal reactive oxygen species production in the leukocytes of mesenteric lymph nodes and splenocytes, and intracellular production after stimulation in peripheral lymph nodes. Antioxidant enzyme activity and BP were not affected by HS diet. Low GPx4 expression, increased superoxide production in leukocytes, and decreased iNOS expression are likely to underlie increased oxidative stress and reduced nitric oxide bioavailability, leading to impairment of FID in the HS group without changes in BP values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study elucidated the effect of NaCl on the thermal resistance and cell morphology of Escherichia coli strains. E. coli O157:H7 NCCP11142, E. coli O111 ATCC12795 and E. coli O26 ATCC43887 were incubated in tryptic soy broth formulated with 0% NaCl (nonhabituated) as well as broth formulated with 2% and 4% NaCl (NaCl-habituated) at 35C. Nonhabituated, 2% NaCl-habituated and 4% NaCl-habituated E. coli O157:H7, E. coli O111 and E. coli O26 were heat-challenged at 50C. The transcriptomes (osmotic stress-related: betA, ompC, proV, proW and heat stress-related: clpB, dksA, dnaJ, dnaK, grpE, msbB, rpoE) were analyzed using real-time polymerase chain reaction and the morphology of E. coli strains was also observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The survival of E. coli O157:H7 was higher ( P < 0.05) than those of other strains after the heat challenge. The expression levels of proV, proW and rpoE increased ( P < 0.05) as NaCl concentration increased, but only proV expression levels were significantly different ( P < 0.05) among E. coli strains. The results indicate that the effect of NaCl on the thermal resistance and the cell morphology depends on the E. coli strain, and increased proV expression level by NaCl may cause the increased thermal resistance of E. coli O157:H7. Practical Applications NaCl is widely used as an antimicrobial and a preservative agent in food processing. However, Escherichia coli O157:H7 exposed to 2% and 4% NaCl showed thermal resistance, upregulated gene expression on osmotic- and heat-related genes and changed cell morphology. Thus, NaCl concentration should be limited in food not to increase E. coli O157:H7 tolerance to other stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salt stress reduces grain yield of maize ( Zea mays L.) due to poor kernel setting but not due to decreased grain filling. In the present study, it was tested whether acid invertase activity is decreased in developing kernels of maize under salt stress, and if assimilate supply is limited. The relatively salt-sensitive maize hybrid Pioneer 3906 was compared with the more salt-resistant hybrid SR 12. Salt stress caused a significant decrease in grain yield which was due to a 50% decrease in kernel number. No source limitation was observed, as the sucrose concentrations in kernels were significantly increased under salt stress for both genotypes. In contrast, glucose and fructose concentrations in kernels were significantly decreased. Salt stress caused a significant inhibition of soluble acid invertase activity to 19% in hydroponics 5 d after pollination (5 DAP) and to 50% in the soil culture experiment (2 DAP). The decrease in enzyme activity was the same for both genotypes. In the soil experiment, the highest soluble acid invertase activity was found 2 DAP with a steep decline until 8 DAP in Pioneer 3906. It is concluded that a decrease in acid invertase activity is a key factor associated with limited kernel setting under salt stress but additional factors may be responsible for genotypic differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the effects of salt to the microbial population, and establishment of biological treatment of real saline sewage. It notes that the modified University of Cape Town (MUCT) process was used to evaluate the shift in microbial population and treatment performance. Methods used include examination of salt concentrations that show that they have effect on phosphorous removal. The study gave an insight to the nature and magnitude effects on the microbial community.

The halophilic archaeon Halobacterium salinarum NRC-1 was used as a model system to investigate cellular damage induced by exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation (IR). Oxidative damages are the main lesions from IR and result from free radicals production via radiolysis of water. This is the first study to quantify DNA base modification in a prokaryote, revealing a direct relationship between yield of DNA lesions and IR dose. Most importantly, our data demonstrate the significance of DNA radiation damage other than strand breaks on cell survival. We also report the first in vivo evidence of reactive oxygen species scavenging by intracellular halides in H. salinarum NRC-1, resulting in increased protection against nucleotide modification and carbonylation of protein residues. Bromide ions, which are highly reactive with hydroxyl radicals, provided the greatest protection to cellular macromolecules. Modified DNA bases were repaired in 2 h post irradiation, indicating effective DNA repair systems. In addition, measurements of H. salinarum NRC-1 cell interior revealed a high Mn/Fe ratio similar to that of Deinococcus radiodurans and other radiation-resistant microorganisms, which has been shown to provide a measure of protection for proteins against oxidative damage. The work presented here supports previous studies showing that radiation resistance is the product of mechanisms for cellular protection and detoxification, as well as for the repair of oxidative damage to cellular macromolecules. The finding that not only Mn/Fe but also the presence of halides can decrease the oxidative damage to DNA and proteins emphasizes the significance of the intracellular milieu in determining microbial radiation resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a study regarding the interaction between Fluoroperm92 contact lens and sodium chloride using various techniques. It states that the said study offers useful suggestions in figuring out the discomfort and other problems in wearing rapid gas permeable (RGP) lenses. It adds that zones of redundant salt concentration on the lens' methacrylate and flourine sites were produced by the sodium chloride's adhesion.

Contaminants have direct, harmful effects across multiple ecological scales, including the individual, the community, and the ecosystem levels. Less, however, is known about how indirect effects of contaminants on consumer physiology or behavior might alter community interactions or ecosystem processes. We examined whether a potential aquatic contaminant, an ionic liquid, can indirectly alter benthic algal biomass and primary production through direct effects on herbivorous snails. Ionic liquids are nonvolatile organic salts being considered as an environmentally friendly potential replacement for volatile organic compounds in industry. In two greenhouse experiments, we factorially crossed four concentrations of 1-N-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (bmimBr; experiment 1: 0 or 10 mg/L; experiment 2: 0, 1, or 100 mg/L) with the presence or absence of the snail Physa acuta in aquatic mesocosms. Experimental results were weighted by their respective control (no bmimBr or P. acuta) and combined for statistical analysis. When both bmimBr and snails were present, chlorophyll a abundance and algal biovolume were higher than would be expected if both factors acted additively. In addition, snail growth rates, relative to those of controls, declined by 41 to 101% at 10 and 100 mg/L of bmimBr. Taken together, these two results suggest that snails were less efficient grazers in the presence of bmimBr, resulting in release of algae from the grazer control. Snails stimulated periphyton primary production in the absence, but not in the presence, of bmimBr, suggesting that bmimBr also can indirectly alter ecosystem function. These findings suggest that sublethal contaminant levels can negatively impact communities and ecosystem processes via complex interactions, and they provide baseline information regarding the potential effects of an emergent industrial chemical on aquatic systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salts that accumulate near the soil surface with subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) can hinder the establishment of succeeding direct-seeded crops. To prevent crop loss or yield reduction, producers rely on sprinklers for germination, which is often expensive and requires added capital inputs. Predicting salt movement and accumulation with SDI will allow producers to anticipate the need for sprinkler irrigation for salt control. The HYDRUS-2D model was used to model salt accumulation from an SDI system on successive crops of cantaloupe (Cucumis melo L. ssp. melo var. cantalupensis Naudin) and broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenck) with two tape depths (18 and 25 cm), different germination practices (germination with SDI and with sprinklers), and water salinity (1.5 and 2.6 dS m-1). Predicted saturated-paste electrical conductivity (ECe) values from HYDRUS-2D were significantly correlated with actual ECe data obtained from field experiments (r2 = 0.08-0.93). After Season 1, the correlation coefficients were highly variable, with the majority of model ECe values being higher than field data. Season 2 results indicated a much stronger relationship, with R2 values as high as 0.93. Model predictions for Season 2 showed underprediction of ECe when compared with actual ECe. Relationships between model-predicted ECe and actual ECe resulted in a slope of nearly 1.0 for all treatments and a γ intercept close to - 1 dS m-1. A better understanding of the processes that occur at the field scale, such as root growth, root distribution, and plant water uptake, is essential for modeling water and solute transport with SDI. A better characterization of evapotranspiration from SDI is required to accurately model salt accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of soil salinity and water stress on Verticillium wilt, ion composition and growth of pistachio were studied in a greenhouse experiment (18–32°C). Treatments consisted of three levels of salinity (0, 1200 and 2400 mg NaCl/kg soil), three levels of water stress (3, 7 and 14 day irrigation regimes) and two Pistachio cultivars (Sarakhs and Qazvini, common rootstocks in Iran). Infested soil containing 50 microsclerotia/g of a pistachio isolate of Verticillium dahliae was used for all treatments and non-infested soils were used as control. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized design with three replications. Eight-week-old pistachio seedlings were transferred to infested and non-infested soil and then exposed to salt stress and thereafter water stress. Shoot dry weights of both rootstocks were reduced significantly with increasing NaCl levels; however, increasing irrigation regimes reduced salt injury. Salt stress significantly increased shoot and root colonization by V. dahliae in both cultivars. Moreover, increasing of salinity level was positively correlated with increasing concentrations of Na+, K+ and Cl− in both cultivars, but negatively correlated with increasing irrigation regimes. Based on these results, Sarakhs and Qazvini were found to be sensitive and tolerant to the effect of irrigation regimes, salinity and Verticillium wilt disease, respectively. Although there were no interactive effects of irrigation and salinity on V. dahliae infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents information on a study which elucidated structural changes in chicken myofibrils and extraction of the individual myofibrillar components when exposed to various commercial phosphates at different salt levels. Materials and method; Results and discussion; Conclusion.

Inland and coastal populations of the salt-tolerant plant Distichlis spicata were grown under three salinity levels (0, 1000 and 2000 mg Na+ added kg-1 soil as NaCl) with and without inoculum of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae, Mycorthizal infection averaged 28 % for the inland plants and 9% for the coastal plants, and was unaffected by soil salinity. Dry mass of non-mycorrhizal plants was significantly higher at the low salinity for inland plants and at the intermediate salinity for coastal plants. Mycorrhizal roots bad. higher Na concentrations than did non-mycorrhizal roots, but also had higher K and P concentrations, and thus maintained a high K/Na ratio. Leaf concentrations of Na were similar in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants. Excretion by salt glands may serve to maintain constant leaf Na concentrations. Stomatal conductances were the same for mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants at all salinities. While mycorrhizae had little effect on D. spicata in this short-term greenhouse experiment, a full evaluation might require long-term field observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]