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Astrocytes are housekeepers of the central nervous system ( CNS) and are important for CNS development, homeostasis and defence. They communicate with neurones and other glial cells through the release of signalling molecules. Astrocytes secrete a wide array of classic neurotransmitters, neuromodulators and hormones, as well as metabolic, trophic and plastic factors, all of which contribute to the gliocrine system. The release of neuroactive substances from astrocytes occurs through several distinct pathways that include diffusion through plasmalemmal channels, translocation by multiple transporters and regulated exocytosis. As in other eukaryotic cells, exocytotic secretion from astrocytes involves divergent secretory organelles (synaptic-like microvesicles, dense-core vesicles, lysosomes, exosomes and ectosomes), which differ in size, origin, cargo, membrane composition, dynamics and functions. In this review, we summarize the features and functions of secretory organelles in astrocytes. We focus on the biogenesis and trafficking of secretory organelles and on the regulation of the exocytotic secretory system in the context of healthy and diseased astrocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The N-Methyl D-Aspartic acid ( NMDA) receptors ( NMDAR) are key tetrameric ionotropic glutamate receptors that transduce glutamatergic signals throughout the central nervous system ( CNS) and spinal cord. Although NMDARs are diverse in their subunit composition, subcellular localization, and biophysical and pharmacological properties, their activation always requires the binding of a co-agonist that has long been thought to be glycine. However, intense research over the last decade has challenged this classical model by showing that another amino acid, d-serine, is the preferential co-agonist for a subset of synaptic NMDARs in many areas of the adult brain. Nowadays, a totally new picture of glutamatergic synapses at work is emerging where both glycine and d-serine are involved in a complex interplay to regulate NMDAR functions in the CNS following time and space constraints. The purpose of this review was to highlight the particular role of each co-agonist in modulating NMDAR-dependent activities in healthy and diseased brains. We have herein integrated our most advanced knowledge of how glycine and d-serine may orchestrate synapse dynamics and drive neuronal network activity in a time- and synapse-specific manner and how changes in synaptic availability of these amino acids may contribute to cognitive impairments such as those associated with healthy aging, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Oxidative stress (OS) resulting from an imbalance between antioxidant defenses and the intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) contributes to age-related memory deficits. While impaired synaptic plasticity in neuronal networks is thought to underlie cognitive deficits during aging, whether this process is targeted by OS and what the mechanisms involved are still remain open questions. In this study, we investigated the age-related effects of the reducing agent N-acetyl-L-cysteine (L-NAC) on the activation of the N-methyl- d-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R) by its co-agonist d-serine, because alterations in this mechanism contribute greatly to synaptic plasticity deficits in aged animals. Long-term dietary supplementation with L-NAC prevented oxidative damage in the hippocampus of aged rats. Electrophysiological recordings in the CA1 of hippocampal slices indicated that NMDA-R-mediated synaptic potentials and theta-burst-induced long-term potentiation (LTP) were depressed in aged animals, deficits that could be reversed by exogenous d-serine. Chronic treatment with L-NAC, but not acute application of the reducing agent, restored potent d-serine-dependent NMDA-R activation and LTP induction in aged rats. In addition, it is also revealed that the age-related decrease in d-serine levels and in the expression of the synthesizing enzyme serine racemase, which underlies the decrease in NMDA-R activation by the amino acid, was rescued by long-term dietary treatment with L-NAC. Our results indicate that protecting redox status in aged animals could prevent injury to the cellular mechanisms underlying cognitive aging, in part by maintaining potent NMDA-R activation through the d-serine-dependent pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last two decades have witnessed remarkable advance in our understanding the role of d‐amino acids in the mammalian nervous system: from the unknown, to known molecules with unknown functions, to potential central players in health and disease. d‐Amino acids have emerged as an important class of signaling molecules. In particular, the exploration of the roles of d‐serine in brain physiopathology is a vibrant field that is growing at an accelerating pace. However, disentangling the functions of a chiral molecule in a complex chemical matrice as the brain requires specific measurement and detection methods but is also a challenging task as many molecular tools and models investigators are using can lead to confounded observations. Thus, study of d‐amino acids demands accurate methodologies and specific controls, and these have often been lacking. Here we outline best practices for d‐amino acid research, with a special emphasis on d‐serine. We hope these concepts help move the field to greater rigor and reproducibility, allowing the field to advance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]