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Objectives: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that ethnic and ethnolinguistic discrimination, and Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) related to being Indigenous as well as different aspects of acculturative stress, are associated with poorer health and higher levels of depression among the Nahua Indigenous communities. Materials and methods: Our quantitative survey was carried out in four different regions inhabited by the Nahua people in Mexico. Self‐rated health and depression, the symptoms of PTSD, two facets of acculturative stress and ethnolinguistic discrimination were assessed by questionnaires. The data were analyzed using binary logistic regression models. Results: The symptoms of PTSD and acculturative stress experienced in the workplace were significantly associated with a higher risk of poor self‐rated health, adjusted for various socio‐demographic characteristics. Acculturative stress, discouragement of language use, language avoidance and ethnolinguistic discrimination were related to a higher risk of depression and PTSD. Discussion: Our research implies that ethnic and linguistic discrimination, acculturative stress and the memory of harm linked to being Indigenous reflected in the symptoms of PTSD, are important predictors of poorer health and depression among Nahua groups in Mexico. These adverse effects could be significantly counteracted by effective dealing with stigmatization and discrimination against Indigenous people in Mexico and by replacing strong assimilation pressures with integrational approaches that respect ethnolinguistic diversity and reduce socioeconomic marginalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The level of fluctuating asymmetry is suggested as a putative signal of developmental stability, thus according to this theoretical framework more symmetric individuals should be in better biological condition and have greater reproductive potential. Here we hypothesize that women with more symmetric faces have more successful reproduction. Methods: Data were collected from 164 postmenopausal Polish women. Facial photographs were taken and the overall facial asymmetry (OFA) was calculated. The associations between the OFA and reproductive parameters were analyzed using multiple regression models. Furthermore, the mediation analysis was conducted to test for the indirect effects of the OFA on reproductive success. Results: There was a statistically significant relationship between the OFA and the number of children born, which was mediated by the age at first reproduction (p = 0.03), however, the size of the effect was rather low. Women with more symmetric faces had an earlier age at first reproduction and, in consequence, a greater number of children. Discussion: As fluctuating asymmetry is suggested to be established in utero, these findings shed light on the possible life‐long importance of developmental conditions in shaping women's reproductive potential and performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Multiple macronutrients have been shown to affect systemic inflammation, a well‐known predictor of chronic disease. Less often, varying sources of these macronutrients are examined. Different subsistence environments lead to varying access to protein sources which, combined with physical activity patterns, may lead to different relationships than among more typically studied sedentary, industrialized populations. This study hypothesizes an association between dietary protein intake and urinary C‐reactive protein (CRP) concentration in women from a rural, agrarian Polish community. Materials and Methods: We assessed protein intake and their sources for 80 nonsmoking, premenopausal Polish women who were not pregnant, nursing, or on hormonal birth control during the study or within the previous 6 months. Each participant completed multiple 24‐hr dietary recalls during one menstrual cycle. Participants collected morning void urinary samples daily over one menstrual cycle for urinary CRP analysis. We analyzed relationships between plant and animal protein intake and CRP over the menstrual cycle by multiple linear regression. Results: Plant protein in cereal foods was significantly positively associated with cycle‐average urinary CRP concentrations (p < 0.05) after controlling for body fat percent, total energy intake, and dietary fiber. Foods containing animal protein were not significantly associated with CRP. Discussion: Contents of this population's main plant and animal protein sources differ from those of more commonly studied industrialized populations. Within the context of a population's typical diet, more emphasis may need to be placed on particular source of protein consumed, beyond plant versus animal, in order to understand relationships with CRP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Oxidative stress is hypothesized to contribute to age‐related somatic deterioration. Both reproductive and ecological context may necessitate tradeoffs that influence this outcome. We examined whether measures of lifetime reproductive effort were related to levels of oxidative stress biomarkers in peri‐ and post‐menopausal women and whether associations were moderated by rural or urban residence. Methods: We surveyed 263 healthy women (age 62.1 ± 10.0 SD) from rural (N = 161) and urban Poland (N = 102), collecting sociodemographic data and urine samples to analyze biomarkers of oxidative stress (8‐oxo‐2′‐deoxyguanosine, 8‐OHdG) and antioxidative defense (copper‐zinc superoxide dismutase, Cu‐Zn SOD). Linear regression models, adjusted for residence, were used to test for associations between reproductive effort and 8‐OHdG and Cu‐Zn SOD. Results: Univariate models demonstrated significant associations between gravidity and the biomarkers of oxidative stress (8‐OHdG: R2 = 0.042, P ≤.001; Cu‐Zn SOD: R2 = 0.123, P ≤.001). Multivariate models incorporating potential confounding variables, as well as cross‐product interaction terms, indicated that gravidity was associated with 8‐OHdG (P <.01, R2adj = 0.067) and Cu‐Zn SOD (P =.01, R2adj = 0.159). Residence (ie, urban vs rural) did not significantly moderate the associations between the biomarkers and reproductive effort. Conclusions: Higher lifetime reproductive effort contributes to increases in oxidative stress and antioxidative defenses. Our results provide evidence of potential mechanisms underlying the physiological tradeoffs influencing senescence for women with high reproductive effort. We illustrate the value of applying an evolutionary perspective to elucidate variation in human health and senescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Early‐life conditions play an important role in human development, affecting health status and survival. Conditions in utero partly depend on the external environment and thus vary in relation to the season of birth. The aim of this study was to investigate if people born in different seasons of the year differ in values of biomarkers that reflect conditions during fetal development. Methods: The study was conducted among Polish rural women recruited at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site. The participants were 234 women aged 45 to 92 (mean = 60.2; SD = 10.44). The indicators of early‐life environment analyzed in the study were: Absolute Finger Ridge Count (AFRC), the difference between mean number of ridge counts in both thumbs and both little fingers (Md15), overall facial fluctuating asymmetry (OFA), central facial asymmetry (CFA), right and left hand 2D:4D. Results: Values of biomarkers of fetal development did not vary among groups of women born in different seasons of the year. Conclusions: Lack of differences in values of biomarkers according to birth season may indicate that: (a) season of birth is not a good indicator of early‐life conditions; (b) tested biomarkers do not reliably reflect the prenatal environment; (c) season of birth does not fully overlap with the sensitive periods of biomarker development and thus fails to capture differences in developmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Reproduction is costly, but sons and daughters differently influence maternal physiology, also in older age. In particular, having sons may negatively influence maternal health and may be associated with a shorter life span of mothers. Sons may also contribute to increased inflammaging, a chronic sub‐clinical systemic inflammatory state characterized by elevated levels of serum inflammatory mediators. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of the total number of children, and the number of daughters and sons separately on concentrations of C‐reactive protein (CRP), and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL‐6) and tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α). Materials and Methods: The participants were 378 women aged 45–92 who had 3.9 (SD 2.12, median = 4, range = 0–13) children, including 2.1 (SD 1.46, median = 2, range = 0–8) sons and 1.8 (SD 1.44, median = 2, range = 0–7) daughters on average. Results: We found a positive relationship between the overall number of children and IL‐6 levels. CRP and IL‐6 concentrations were positively associated with the number of sons but not with the number of daughters. Each son increased maternal CRP level by 11%, and IL‐6 level by 6%. Neither the total number of children nor the number of daughters or sons were related to the TNF‐α concentration. Discussion Aging‐associated inflammation in post‐reproductive mothers with a higher number of sons supports the hypothesis of trade‐offs between reproduction and health. Furthermore, these results provide new evidence contributing to the idea that having sons may have more detrimental effects on the maternal organism than having daughters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Digit ratio (2D:4D) is widely used as a biomarker of prenatal hormonal environment linked to the growing number of adult health and disease‐related characteristics. It has been suggested that 2D:4D is a good predictor of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) risk among men, but results in women are still inconclusive. Here we test the relationship between 2D:4D and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and their risk factors in Polish, rural women. Methods: The participants were 410 women age 50 and older. Structured questionnaire was used to gather personal and medical data, including the history of CVD diagnosed by a medical doctor. Anthropometric measurements of body height, weight, and finger lengths were performed. Right‐hand and left‐hand 2D:4D, mean 2D:4D, Dl‐r, and BMI were calculated afterward. For a subgroup of participants (n = 329) fasting blood sample was collected (in order to assess the lipid profile and glucose levels) and blood pressure was measured. Age, education level and BMI were included as potential covariates. Results: No statistically significant association was observed between 2D:4D markers and the incidence of CVD (eg, heart attack, stroke) or CVD risk factors (dyslipidaemia, dysglycaemia or hypertension), when controlled for age, education and BMI. Conclusions: The results of our study add to the growing number of studies investigating the sex‐difference of the association between 2D:4D and cardiac health. We conclude that from a public health perspective 2D:4D may not be a valuable biomarker of elevated risk of CVDs in women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Bone mineral density (BMD) and frame size are important predictors of future bone health, with smaller frame size and lower BMD associated with higher risk of later fragility fractures. We test the effects of body size, habitual use, and life history on frame size and cortical BMD of the radius and tibia in sample of healthy adult premenopausal women. Methods: We used anthropometry and life history data from 123 women (age 18‐46) from rural Poland. Standard techniques were used to measure height, weight, and body fat. Life history factors were recorded using surveys. Grip strength was measured as a proxy for habitual activity, wrist breadth for skeletal frame size. Cortical BMD was measured at the one‐third distal point of the radius and mid‐point of the tibia using quantitative ultrasound (reported as speed of sound, SoS). Results: Radial SoS was high (mean t‐score 3.2 ± 1.6), but tibia SoS was average (mean t‐score 0.35 ± 1.17). SoS was not associated with age, although wrist breadth was positively associated with age after adjusting for height. Radius SoS was not associated with measures of body size, habitual use, or life history factors. Wrist breadth was associated with body size (p <.05 for all), lean mass, and grip strength. Tibia SoS was associated with height. Life history factors were not associated with frame size or cortical SoS. Conclusions: Habitual use and overall body size are more strongly associated with frame size and cortical SoS than life history factors in this sample of healthy adult women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Fetal environmental conditions are crucial for life‐long health. Direct measurements of developmental conditions are limited in humans; thus, several biomarkers of those conditions have been proposed: that is, finger ridge‐counts, level of facial fluctuating asymmetry (FA), and digit ratio (2D:4D). Since all of these biomarkers share a similar gestational time of formation, we hypothesize that their values are significantly correlated. Materials and methods: Data were collected at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in southern Poland among 234 women. Finger ridge‐counts, level of facial FA, and 2D:4D have been measured. The two‐step analyses included Pearson's correlations of simple values of the biomarkers and correlations of composite variables calculated based on principal component analysis. Results: We did not find any statistically significant correlations between finger ridge‐counts, FA, and 2D:4D in women. Similarly, we did not observe any correlations between three composites created from the biomarkers. Discussion Our results indicate that there are no relationships between the biomarkers, suggested as proxies of the quality of prenatal conditions, in a single population. This is the first study analyzing three different markers simultaneously. The lack of correlations may indicate that the tested biomarkers reflect, in fact, different environmental conditions, occurring in separate "critical windows" of development, or that the biomarkers are not valid as proxies of developmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Age at menarche in Poland has varied with political and socioeconomic changes. An increase in age at menarche corresponded to a period of economic crisis and food rationing between 1976 and 1989. Experiencing food shortages in utero or during childhood development can affect menarcheal timing, but this national effect may be buffered in local agrarian regions growing their own food. Here we examine patterns of age at menarche over time in the rural, agrarian Beskid Wyspowy region of southern Poland. Methods: This study examined menarcheal timing using data collected from Polish women (n = 1326) recruited at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site between 2003 and 2018. Simple linear regressions were used to assess changing ages at menarche over time. Comparisons between ages at menarche for women born before and after the fall of communism in 1989 were assessed via one‐way analysis of variance. Results: Age at menarche has declined over time in the Beskid Wyspowy region of southern Poland from 1920 to 2000 (R2 =.08, P <.0001). There was not a statistically significant increase or decrease in age at menarche for women born and growing up during the period of food rationing. Conclusions: The declining age at menarche is likely reflective of a transitioning environment, suggesting that major socioeconomic changes affect life history traits like pubertal timing. Living in agricultural regions may have helped buffer the increasing ages at menarche seen in other areas of Poland during times of food rationing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Life‐history theory predicts that access to limited resources leads to trade‐offs between competing body functions. Women, who face higher costs of reproduction when compared to men, should be especially vulnerable to these trade‐offs. We propose the 'cognitive costs of reproduction hypothesis', which states that energy trade‐offs imposed by reproduction may lead to a decline in maternal cognitive function during gestation. In particular, we hypothesize that the decline in cognitive function frequently observed during pregnancy is associated with the allocation of resources between the competing energetic requirements of the mother's brain and the developing foetus. Several distinctive anatomical and physiological features including a high metabolic rate of the brain, large infant size, specific anatomical features of the placenta and trophoblast, and the lack of maternal control over glucose flow through the placenta make the occurrence of these trade‐offs likely. Herein, we review several lines of evidence for trade‐offs between gestation and cognition that are related to: (i) energy metabolism during reproduction; (ii) energy metabolism of the human brain; (iii) links between energy metabolism and cognitive function; and (iv) links between gestation and cognitive function. We also review evidence for the important roles of cortisol, corticotropin‐releasing hormone and sex hormones in mediating the effects of gestation on cognition, and we discuss possible neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the observed effects. The evidence supports the view that energy trade‐offs between foetal growth and maternal endocrine and brain function lead to changes in maternal cognition, and that this phenomenon is mediated by neuroendocrine mechanisms involving the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, brainstem nucleus locus coeruleus and hippocampus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: Among couples, women usually prefer slightly older men, and men tend to choose much younger partners. Age difference between partners has been shown to influence their parity; however, results of previous studies are inconsistent. This study analyzed relationships between husband and wife age difference and their total number of children, and number of daughters and sons in a contemporary, rural Polish population. Methods: Demographic and reproductive data were collected from 384 postmenopausal women from rural Poland who were married only once. Regression models were used to evaluate the impact of the age gap between partners on total number of children and on number of daughters and sons. Women's age, age at marriage (as an indicator of reproductive value), and years of education were used in analyzes as potential confounders. Results: There was an inverted U‐shape association between parental age difference and number of children and also the number of sons. The highest number of children and sons was observed when men were approximately 6.5 years older than their wives. There was no significant relationship between parental age difference and number of daughters. Conclusions: Age difference between partners is important for reproductive success (with younger wives having higher reproductive potential) and is also related to number of sons. Older husbands might provide more resources for the family, thus facilitating production of well‐nourished male offspring. Future research should evaluate not only number of children but also their biological condition, health, and lifetime achievements in relation to the age difference between their parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The costs associated with reproduction (i.e., gestation, lactation, childcare) have longterm negative consequences by elevating risk of disease and reducing lifespan. We tested the hypotheses that high parity, and thus high reproductive costs bear by women, is perceived by other people when they evaluate facial appearance of health, attractiveness and age of mothers. Materials and Methods: Using computer software we created average facial images based on real photographs of post-menopausal women with varying number of children; 3 parity categories were created (1-2, 4-5, and 7-9 children). Study participants (N=571) were asked to choose the face they perceived as more attractive, younger and healthier via two-alternative forced choice questions asked in three randomized blocks. Results: Women who had given birth to fewer children were judged both by men and women as more attractive, younger and healthier than women with more children. In each category the lowest scores were received by women from highest parity category (7-9 children). Discussion: Mechanisms behind the observed variation in facial appearance are not known but higher levels of oxidative stress among women with high parity may explain their faster aging and lower attractiveness in older age. These results suggest that costs of reproduction might affect women's physical appearance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Prenatal development has a long-lasting influence on biological condition and health. Second-tofourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is suggested as an indicator of sex hormone exposure during fetal development, and it is likely that women with a more feminine digit ratio were exposed to higher prenatal estrogen levels. Therefore, we tested if 2D:4D was related to a woman's reproductive characteristics. Methods: We studied 319 women aged 46-92, who went through a natural menopause and whose husbands were alive at least until their menopause were studied. Women were recruited at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site located in rural Poland. Results: Women with more feminine 2D:4D had a higher number of children (P = 0.002), gave birth to their last child at a later age (P = 0.02), and had a longer reproductive lifespan (P = 0.04) than women with more masculine 2D:4D. Age and number of years of education were included as potential confounders in the analyses. Conclusions: The results indicated that women with more feminine 2D:4D had higher reproductive success. While the exact mechanisms were not known, and the relationship between 2D:4D and adult sex hormone levels was questioned by previous studies, there might be other biological pathways explaining the observed results, that is, via behaviors that were indirectly related to fertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Short interpregnancy intervals (IPI) and high parity may be synergistically associated with the risk of unfavorable pregnancy outcomes. This study tests if the effect of short IPI on the odds ratio for low birth weight (LBW, <2,500 g) differs across parity status. Methods The study was carried out on the birth registry sample of almost 40,000 singleton, live-born infants who were delivered between the years 1995 and 2009 to multiparous mothers whose residence at the time of infant's birth was the city of Krakow. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used for testing the effect of IPI on the odds ratio (OR) for LBW, after controlling for employment, educational and marital status, parity, sex of the child, maternal and gestational age. Stratified analyses (according to parity) and tests for interaction were performed. Results Very short IPI (0-5 months) was associated with an increased OR for LBW, but only among high parity mothers with three or more births (OR = 2.64; 95% CI 1.45-4.80). The test for interaction between very short IPI and parity on the OR for LBW was statistically significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons ( P = 0.04). Among low parity mothers (two births) no statistically significant associations were found between IPI and LBW after standardization. Conclusion Parity may modify the association between short birth spacing and LBW. Women with very short IPI and high parity may have a higher risk of having LBW infants than those with very short IPI but low parity. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:660-666, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is proposed as a proxy for the prenatal balance of sex hormones, is related to hormone-dependent characteristics in adult life, and is a possible predictor of disease later in life. Here, we studied the relationship between 2D:4D and ovarian steroid hormones (17β-estradiol and progesterone) among women of reproductive age. Methods From 186 healthy premenopausal women, aged 24-37 years, we collected saliva samples daily during the entire menstrual cycle. Data on reproductive and lifestyle characteristics were collected via questionnaires, and anthropometric measurements were performed. Results No statistically significant relationships were detected between adult women's sex hormone concentrations (17β-estradiol and progesterone) during the menstrual cycle and 2D:4D, in either left or right hand, when controlling for size at birth, body mass index, and physical activity. Conclusions This study shows, for the first time in a large sample of women of reproductive age, that 2D:4D is not a predictor of adult women's sex hormone concentration. The lack of relationship may be because 2D:4D might be genetically determined and is not related to maternal nutritional environment during fetal development. These results support the hypothesis that, in contrast to the nutritional quality of the fetal environment, the fetal hormonal environment (reflected by 2D:4D) does not determine reproductive physiology in later life. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:666-673, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Testosterone supports male reproduction through a broad range of behavioral and physiological effects, including the maintenance of sexually dimorphic muscle used in male-male competition. Although it is often assumed that a persistent relationship exists between men's testosterone production and musculature, most studies either fail to find evidence for such a relationship, or document very weak associations. In nonhuman primates, by contrast, correlations between testosterone and muscle mass are higher. Here, we propose the 'Paternal Provisioning Hypothesis,' which predicts that men's skeletal muscle is less dependent on the effects of androgens than that of other primates, and more sensitive to the physical demands of men's work. This permits human fathers to downregulate testosterone, which has negative impacts on pair-bonding and parenting effort, but without sacrificing the strength and musculature necessary to provision mates and offspring. Methods We tested predictions of the Paternal Provisioning Hypothesis by assessing parental status, salivary testosterone levels, anthropometry, and strength among 122 men (ages 18-78) at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in rural Poland. We chose this population because men practice subsistence agriculture, regularly engaging in physically demanding labor. Grip and chest strength were assessed using a dynamometer, and upper-body musculature was estimated from arm muscle circumference. Results In this population, testosterone showed no association with measures of strength or musculature, and was lower in older men and pair-bonded fathers. Marital and parental status and workload, by contrast, were positive predictors of muscle mass and strength measures. Discussion These findings offer support for the Paternal Provisioning Hypothesis. Am J Phys Anthropol 158:19-35, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To test the hypothesis that life history trade-offs between maintenance and reproductive effort would be evident through inverse associations between levels of a biomarker of inflammation [C-reactive protein (CRP)], and ovarian hormones. Associations between CRP and age at menarche were also explored. Methods Urinary CRP, salivary progesterone, and estradiol were measured over one menstrual cycle from rural Polish women ( n = 25), representing a natural fertility sample. Age of menarche was assessed through interview recall methods. We used minimum second-order Akaike Information Criteria as a means of multiple regression model selection, and repeated measures ANOVA to test cycle-dependent hypotheses. Results Comparisons of individuals in high and low CRP tertiles revealed that those with high CRP had significantly lower progesterone (luteal P = 0.03, mid luteal P = 0.007) but not estradiol (follicular P = 0.21, luteal P = 0.15) concentrations through the menstrual cycle. However, when the age at menarche was included in the analysis, both age at menarche and urinary CRP were negatively associated with estradiol ( R2 = 0.44, P = 0.0007). Age at menarche and estradiol were the strongest negative predictors of CRP ( R2 = 0.52, P = 0.0001). Conclusions Inflammation itself may suppress ovarian function, or indicate immune challenges that lead to ovarian suppression. The timing of menarche may also influence adult inflammatory sensitivity and ovarian hormone concentrations. This lends support to existing models of trade-offs between maintenance and reproduction in women. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 25:389-398, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Women should differ in their reproductive strategies according to their nutritional status. We tested a hypothesis that women who have a good nutritional status early in life, as indicated by a shorter waiting time to the first birth (first birth interval, FBI), are able to afford higher costs of reproduction than women who have worse nutritional condition. Methods: We collected data on 377 women who got married between the years 1782 and 1882 in a natural fertility population in rural Poland. The study group was divided into tertiles based on the length of FBI. Results: Women with the shortest FBI had a higher number of children ( P = 0.005), higher number of sons ( P = 0.01), and shorter mean interbirth intervals ( P = 0.06). Women who had ever given birth to twins had shorter FBI than women of singletons (20.1 and 26.1 months, respectively; P = 0.049). Furthermore, women with a shorter FBI, despite having higher costs of reproduction, did not have a different lifespan than women with a longer FBI. Conclusions: Our results suggest that women who were in better energetic condition (shorter length of FBI), achieved higher reproductive success without reduction in lifespan. FBI reflects interindividual variation, which may result from variation in nutritional status early in life and thus may be a good predictor of subsequent reproductive strategy. We propose to use FBI as an indicator of women's nutritional status in studies of historical populations, especially when information about social status is not available. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the research that shows the negation of the link between the number of children and the lifespan of women. It notes the high energy consumption of lactation than childbirth and finds no relation with the number of children produced to the mortality of the mother. It considers the strong influence of social and economic status as risks for the mortality of women.

The article focuses on the study of womens' body shape, size and mass after childbirth in Poland. It mentions the relationship of the body mass index (BMI) with the number of children born as shown in the variation of BMI results. It discovers the unrelated relationship of the womens' hip circumference with the number of children they produce.

The article focuses on the birth weight of contemporary African Americans. The author states that African Americans' birth weight is significantly lower than those of European Americans due to differences in genetic and socioeconomic factors. She proposes that the low birth weight of contemporary African Americans result from conditions experienced during the period of slavery. Factors that determine birth weight and the natural status of children during slavery are discussed.

The article reports on the results of a study of the interpopulation, interindividual, intercycle and intracycle natural variation in progesterone levels of premenopausal women. A description of the experimental set-up and measurement method is presented. The study concluded that research in populations with seasonal lifestyles should rely on measurements of at least three cycles per women.

The article presents a study that examines the relationship between moderate anxiety and ovarian steroid and corticosteroid levels in saliva. Under the investigation, anxiety levels of healthy women subjects were assessed in relation to daily levels of salivary ovarian and corticosteroid levels over one menstrual cycle. Results suggest that moderate levels of anxiety are not associated with suppressed ovarian function.

Objectives The aim of the present study is to examine whether being born after a brother versus after a sister differentially impacts reproductive outcomes in a contemporary population. The sex of the preceding sibling may influence an individual's fitness, and, in fact, individuals born after a brother have been shown to have lower reproductive success in historical populations. Males, as the more expensive sex, constitute a drain on maternal resources and elicit an immune response during pregnancy, which may have negative consequences on subsequent siblings. Methods A questionnaire was used to collect data on reproductive health and family history from 951 women and 380 men between 20 and 92 years of age in villages throughout the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in southern Poland. Number of children, number of sons and daughters, age at menarche, age at marriage, age at menopause, and age at first and last reproduction were tested as components of reproductive success. Results The sex of one's preceding sibling had no statistically significant impact on any of the reproductive characteristics tested. Conclusions Our results suggest that potential immunological and nutritional disadvantages experienced during prenatal life by individuals born after male siblings do not have long-lasting effects in modern, well-nourished populations. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 27:731-733, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Health research often focuses on moderate and vigorous intensity physical activity while neglecting low‐intensity habitual activities. Our aim was to understand habitual physical activity in women from a transitioning economy using a physical activity monitor. Methods: This study investigated physical activity in 68 healthy premenopausal women (age 18–46) in rural Poland using FitBit One activity trackers for 1 week. Standard anthropometric techniques were used to measure height, weight, and body fat. Daily physical activity data were analyzed for step counts as well as duration and intensity. Results: This sample of rural Polish women traveled a mean of 8428 (SD = 2650) steps per day. Time spent lightly active, fairly active, and very active were measured as 337.1 (SD = 87.8), 19.6 (SD = 30.5), and 6.7 (SD = 8.6) minutes per day, respectively. Total time active and time spent lightly active were associated with daily steps (P < 0.001 for both), and time lightly active increased with age (P = 0.02). No other significant relationships were observed between physical activity measures and BMI, age, or body fat. Conclusions: In this sample, women spend a significant amount of time engaged in light‐intensity physical activity and travel a relatively high number of steps per day. Our data suggest that in this population, total daily activity does not depend on age in women between 18 and 46. We suggest that measurement methods which include low‐intensity activity may better characterize habitual physical activity in women who are expected to be performing large amounts of domestic labor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis (CPH) proposes that evolved psychological mechanisms enhance the avoidance of potential contaminants during periods of reproductive immunomodulation in order to decrease a chance of infection. However, the results of previous studies are inconclusive. Our aim was to investigate the differences in disgust sensitivity during phases of menstrual cycle in regularly cycling young healthy women and among women who reported having an infection. Methods: The disgust sensitivity was measured using Two Domains of the Three Domain Disgust Scale (TDDS), Padua Inventory (PI), and photographs during the internet‐based survey. Women (N = 527) were divided by phases of menstrual cycle using two different methods on the basis of reported cycle length and the number of days since the onset of their most recent menstrual bleeding. Results: The women who had an infection and who were in luteal phase had higher scores in Pathogen Disgust Domain than women in follicular phase. However, they did not differ in other assessments of disgust sensitivity. Conclusions: The results provide weak support for the CPH hypothesis. We found differences in disgust sensitivity in women who declared having an infection—participants in the luteal phase scored higher in the Pathogen Domain Scale of TDDS than women in the follicular phase. We suggest that future studies should measure levels of sex steroids and immunological markers of infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Prenatal development has a long-lasting influence on biological condition and health. Second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is suggested as an indicator of sex hormone exposure during fetal development, and it is likely that women with a more feminine digit ratio were exposed to higher prenatal estrogen levels. Therefore, we tested if 2D:4D was related to a woman's reproductive characteristics., Methods: We studied 319 women aged 46-92, who went through a natural menopause and whose husbands were alive at least until their menopause were studied. Women were recruited at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site located in rural Poland., Results: Women with more feminine 2D:4D had a higher number of children (P = 0.002), gave birth to their last child at a later age (P = 0.02), and had a longer reproductive lifespan (P = 0.04) than women with more masculine 2D:4D. Age and number of years of education were included as potential confounders in the analyses., Conclusions: The results indicated that women with more feminine 2D:4D had higher reproductive success. While the exact mechanisms were not known, and the relationship between 2D:4D and adult sex hormone levels was questioned by previous studies, there might be other biological pathways explaining the observed results, that is, via behaviors that were indirectly related to fertility. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:549-553, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., (© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Menstruation has often been cited as a risk factor for iron-deficiency anemia. This study tested whether normal, premenopausal women's luteal endometrial thickness (ET) was associated with their red blood cell count (RBC) and hemoglobin concentrations (Hg), and therefore whether a high ET put women at risk for anemia. Endometrial thickness can be considered a reasonable proxy for menstrual blood loss in normal women. Twenty-six healthy women from the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in Poland, aged 20-40 years (29 +/- 5.3 years, mean +/- SD), were selected. Subjects' ET was measured by transvaginal ultrasound in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, and their red blood cell count and hemoglobin concentrations were measured by fasting morning blood samples. Controlling for day of ET measurement, RBC and Hg were positively correlated with ET (r(2) = 0.24, P = 0.05; r(2) = 0.25, P = 0.04, respectively). We propose that, contrary to popular understanding, a thicker endometrium suggests greater iron reserves, rather than greater risk for anemia, in healthy women.

Reproduction is energetically and physiologically expensive, and an individual investing resources into producing offspring should suffer costs such as deterioration in health condition and possibly shorter life span. Since the energetic and nutritional demands of pregnancy and breastfeeding render reproductive costs much higher in women than in men, women with a large number of children should show signs of deterioration in condition, while men with large families should not. However, whether reproductive costs reduce longevity in women is still questionable, and in men this issue has not been adequately addressed. In addition, since sons are energetically more expensive to produce than daughters, having sons should have a more pronounced negative impact on maternal longevity than having daughters. Here we document a striking disparity in the impact of children on the life span of mothers and fathers in a Polish rural population. We show for the first time that number of daughters was positively related to a longer life span of their fathers, increasing their longevity on average by 74 weeks per daughter born, while number of sons did not have a significant effect on paternal longevity. In contrast, in women, the number of daughters and number of sons reduced maternal longevity and did so to the same extent, on average by 95 weeks per son or daughter, indicating that for women, the costs of having sons and daughters are similar.

Inter-individual variation in levels of sex hormones results from differences in genetic, developmental, and environmental factors. We tested a hypothesis that programming of the fetal neuroendocrine axis may predispose some women to produce higher levels of steroid hormones during their menstrual cycles as adults. One hundred forty-five regularly menstruating 24- to 36- year-old women collected daily saliva samples for one menstrual cycle. Data on women's birth weights and birth lengths were obtained from medical records. A positive relationship was observed between ponderal index at birth (an indicator of nutritional status, calculated as birth weight/(birth length)(3)) and levels of estradiol (E2) in menstrual cycles, after controlling for potential confounding factors. Mean E2 was 16.4 pmol/l in the low ponderal index tertile, 17.3 pmol/l in the moderate ponderal index tertile, and 19.6 pmol/l in the high ponderal index tertile (the high ponderal index group had significantly higher E2 than both low and moderate ponderal index groups, P=0.0001). This study shows a positive association between ponderal index recorded for women at birth and levels of E2 measured during their menstrual cycles as adults. This suggests that conditions during fetal life influence adult production of reproductive hormones and may contribute to inter-individual variation in reproductive function. In addition, because large size at birth is one of the factors linked with an increased risk of breast cancer, our findings provide a physiological link for the observed positive relationship between indicators of energetic conditions during fetal growth and breast cancer in women., (Am. J. Hum. Biol. 18:133-140, 2006. (c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Female mammals can optimize their fitness by temporal suppression of reproductive function in response to unfavorable environmental conditions. Since reproduction is energetically demanding for a human female, ovarian function is expected to be sensitive to factors influencing energy availability and metabolism. Dieting and exercise in women from industrial countries, and low-calorie diet and workload in women from developing countries, are often associated with ovarian suppression. This study shows that in Polish rural women seasonal changes in workload correlate with seasonal changes in indices of ovarian function (progesterone measured in saliva samples collected daily for six menstrual cycles for each subject). Mean levels of energy expenditure of the most work demanding weeks of the summer exceeded mean levels of energy expenditure during winter by 37%. Energy intake in this population was sufficient throughout the year. During the summer, when physical work was most intense, low values of progesterone levels were observed (178.2 pmol/L in July and 182.2 pmol/L in August), indicating ovarian suppression. Mean progesterone levels rose to 234.6 pmol/L in October when levels of energy expenditure were lower due to cessation of harvest-related activities. As indicated by several causal models tested through path analysis, energy expenditure was the only variable responsible for suppressed progesterone levels during the summer. Variables describing the nutritional status and energy balance did not correlate significantly with progesterone levels; neither body weight nor body fat or seasonal changes of these variables seem to influence ovarian function in this population. Thus work-related energy expenditure does not need to lead to negative energy balance in order to cause suppression of reproductive function in women., (Copyright 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)