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Objectives: There is currently no consensus regarding the use of intravenous fluid therapy in feline patients post‐blood donation in veterinary medicine. The primary aim of this study was to determine whether blood donation can be performed safely without post‐donation intravenous fluid therapy. The secondary aim was to report owner‐noted post‐donation changes. Materials and Methods: The study aimed to enrol 100 conscious feline blood donations by client‐owned cats performed at a veterinary teaching hospital. Donors were randomised to either receive intravenous compound sodium lactate (twice the volume of blood donated over 2 hours) immediately after blood donation, or to receive no post‐blood donation intravenous fluid therapy. Systolic blood pressure was measured non‐invasively at 0, 60 and 120 minutes post‐donation. Median blood pressures were compared between the two groups using a Shapiro‐Wilk test. Owners were called the day following the donation to collect information on changes in their cat post‐donation. Results: One hundred cats were enrolled and the data of 97 cats were analysed; 46 who received intravenous fluid therapy and 51 who did not. Mean donation volume was 9.95 mL/kg for the intravenous fluid therapy group and 9.72 mL/kg for the non‐intravenous fluid therapy group. At each time point, the median blood pressure did not differ significantly between the two groups. The main reported changes in both goups were bruising at the venepuncture site with 27.3% (12/44) in the IVFT group and 23.4% (9/37) in the no‐IVFT group, and mild lethargy up to a maximum of 24 hours post donation with 11.4% (5/44) in the IVFT group and 18.9% (7/37) in the no‐IVFT group. Clinical Significance: This study suggests that the use of intravenous fluid therapy post‐feline blood donation may not be necessary. This could mean reduced hospitalisation time for feline donors, possibly decreasing feline stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To determine the rate of accidental placement of nasoenteric tubes into the respiratory tract. To compare the methods of checking correct tube placement. To compare the complication rates between nasoesophageal and nasogastric tubes. Materials and Methods: Animals requiring nasoenteric feeding tubes were prospectively randomised to have either nasoesophageal or nasogastric tube placement. Various techniques for assessing tube position were compared with thoracic radiographic findings. Complications during placement and use were recorded. Results: Ninety‐seven animals (82 dogs and 15 cats) were studied. The tube was misplaced into the respiratory tract in three (3.1%) cases. No technique for checking placement was completely concordant with radiography but the presence of negative pressure at the thoracic inlet during placement was consistent with the presence of the tube in the oesophagus in 86.2% cases, while capnography can be considered to confirm tracheal placement. The overall rate of complications during tube placement was 25.8%, with mostly minor clinical complications reported. There was no significant difference in the new‐onset regurgitation/vomiting rate, or complications while the tube was in situ between the nasoesophageal and nasogastric groups. Clinical Significance: Misplacement of nasoenteric tubes is uncommon but a consistent alternative test to radiography for checking correct nasoenteric tube placement was not demonstrated. The choice of placement of either a nasoesophageal or nasogastric tube should be guided by clinician preference, and clients should be warned about possible complications during placement and while the nasoenteric tube is in situ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To describe the conservative management and outcome of gastrointestinal metallic sharp‐pointed straight foreign bodies in dogs and cats. Materials and Methods: Clinical records of dogs and cats presented to a university teaching hospital between 2003 and 2021 with gastrointestinal metallic sharp‐pointed straight foreign bodies (e.g. needles, pins, nails) were reviewed. Conservative management was defined as leaving the foreign body in situ. Cases were excluded if the foreign body was identified outside of the gastrointestinal tract (including oropharynx and oesophagus) or if it was removed by endoscopy or surgery as the first treatment choice. Patient signalment, presenting complaint, foreign body location, treatment, complications, gastrointestinal transit time, length of hospitalisation and outcome were recorded. Results: A total of 17 cases (13 dogs and four cats) were included in the study, being treated with primary conservative therapeutic approach (11) or following failure of endoscopy (two), surgery (three) or both (one). Clinical signs associated with the foreign body were reported in three (17.6%) cases. Conservative management was successful in 15 (88.2%) cases, with no complications reported. Patients were clinically and radiographically monitored with variable supportive care. In two (11.8%) cases, surgery was subsequently performed as the foreign body failed to progress on repeated radiographs after 24 hours. Mean foreign body gastrointestinal transit time for patients treated conservatively was 59.2 (±31.4) hours. All patients survived to discharge. Clinical Significance: Conservative management is a treatment option for clinically stable cats and dogs with metallic sharp‐pointed straight gastrointestinal foreign bodies in the absence of perforation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To determine the causative organisms, clinical features and outcome of canine infective endocarditis in the UK. Materials and Methods: Medical records of three veterinary referral hospitals were searched for dogs with infective endocarditis between December 2009 and December 2019. Signalment, clinical signs, causative organism, valve affected, treatment and survival data were recorded. Results: Seventy‐seven cases with possible or definite infective endocarditis (according to the modified Duke criteria) were included. The majority were large breed (40/77 – 51.9%). There were 47 of 77 (61%) male dogs and the mean age was 7.3 ±3 years. A causative organism was identified in 26 of 77 (33.8%) cases. The most common organisms were Escherichia coli (7/27 – 25.9%), Pasteurella spp. (5/27 – 18.5%), Staphylococcus spp. (4/27 – 14.8%) and Corynebacterium spp. (4/27 – 14.8%). Bartonella spp. were not detected in any patients. The mitral valve was most commonly affected (48/77 – 62.3%). Clinical features were non‐specific, with lethargy being the most common clinical sign observed (53/77 – 68.8%). Fifty‐three dogs (68.8%) survived to discharge. The median survival time post discharge was 425 days (2 to 3650 days). The development of congestive heart failure was associated with a poorer outcome. Cardiac troponin concentration, antithrombotic use and the development of thromboembolism or arrhythmias were not significantly associated with outcome. Clinical Significance: Some dogs with infective endocarditis that survive to discharge can have a long lifespan. The inability to detect an underlying organism is common and Bartonella spp. may be a less prevalent cause of canine infective endocarditis in the UK than in the USA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed to determine if dogs and cats presenting as an emergency had improved tolerance of intravenous catheterisation following the application of vapocoolant spray when compared to a saline control. Materials and Methods: A randomised controlled trial of client‐owned dogs and cats presenting as an emergency and requiring intravenous catheterisation was performed. Patient signalment and mentation score were recorded. All animals were restrained and had their fur clipped over the catheterisation site. They were then randomly allocated to either have a swab saturated with vapocoolant spray (treatment) or a swab saturated with saline (control) applied to the clipped area before intravenous catheterisation. The procedure was video recorded and a single blinded observer reviewed the recordings and assigned reaction scores (0 to 3) at four time points (initial restraint, limb handling, swab application and skin puncture). Results: Between October 2020 and January 2021, a total of 100 patients (79 dogs, 21 cats) were enrolled, with 50 in each group. No significant difference in species, age, breed, sex or mentation score was detected between the two groups. There was no significant difference in reaction scores between the groups at any time point with the exception of a significantly increased swab application reaction score in the treatment group compared to the control group. Clinical Significance: The indirect application of vapocoolant spray via a swab before catheterisation does not significantly reduce the reaction of dogs and cats to intravenous catheterisation in an emergency setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To describe clinical cases of aspiration pneumonitis and pneumonia in dogs, which were successfully managed without antimicrobials. Materials and Methods: Retrospective case review of dogs presenting to a referral teaching hospital between February 2014 and February 2021. Cases were included when a clinical diagnosis of aspiration pneumopathy was made (requiring one or more of the following: radiographic evidence of an aspiration pneumopathy, endotracheal airway sampling consistent with aspiration and/or a positive endotracheal airway sample culture) which was not treated with antimicrobial therapy. Results: Fourteen cases were identified of which nine had respiratory signs including increased respiratory rate or effort (n=8), arterial hypoxaemia (n=2), or a clinician‐determined requirement for oxygen therapy (n=4). Where haematology was performed, five of nine displayed a normal neutrophil count with toxic changes, three displayed neutrophilia and one displayed neutropenia with toxic changes. Endotracheal airway sample cytology in four cases revealed neutrophilic inflammation with bacteria, plant material, yeasts and unidentified foreign material. Where respiratory signs were present, these resolved within 12 to 36 hours. Clinical Significance: In this case series, immunocompetent dogs sustaining aspiration events, even with classical evidence of pneumonitis or pneumonia, have been managed successfully without antimicrobials. Radiography alone cannot be used to determine the requirement for antimicrobials. Better characterisation of the pathogenesis and clinical trajectory of aspiration pneumopathy is required, which may enable a reduction in inappropriate antimicrobial prescriptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess the accuracy of the lung ultrasound protocol Vet BLUE, using thoracic CT as the reference standard, for the detection of thoracic pathology in dogs and cats. Materials and Methods: Animals that had thoracic ultrasound and thoracic CT were prospectively recruited between May 2017 and September 2018. The Vet BLUE protocol was performed on animals at the time of admission by veterinarians with basic training in emergency ultrasound. A board‐certified radiologist, blinded to the Vet BLUE findings, reviewed the CT images. Results: CT was abnormal in 64.5% (20/31) animals. The number of CT sites positive for alveolar‐interstitial syndrome was 24.2% (60/248). When using CT as the reference standard, detection of ≥3 B lines with thoracic ultrasound had a sensitivity of 18.33% and specificity of 98.4% for detection of site specific alveolar‐interstitial syndrome. The sensitivity of Vet BLUE to detect alveolar‐interstitial syndrome increased to 56.9% when including the presence of any B line as abnormal. Overall accuracy for detection of alveolar‐interstitial syndrome based on these two criteria was 79% and 73%, respectively. Vet BLUE correctly identified consolidation in 58.3% (14/24) sites, pleural effusion in 66.6% (2/3) cases, pneumothorax in 33.3% (1/3) cases and intrathoracic mass in 25% (1/4) cases. Clinical Significance: The Vet BLUE protocol is a useful technique to detect alveolar‐interstitial syndrome and other thoracic pathology but should not be used as a sole imaging method. Detection of ≥3 B lines is highly suggestive of alveolar‐interstitial syndrome and warrants further diagnostics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To: (1) assess the frequency of crossmatch incompatibility in naïve feline blood transfusion recipients using two crossmatching methods, (2) measure the effect of crossmatch incompatibility on change in packed cell volume following transfusion, (3) assess the frequency of acute transfusion reactions and errors in blood transfusions in cats and (4) assess the impact of crossmatch incompatibility on the likelihood of transfusion reactions. Materials and Methods: Cats being administered a first AB‐matched transfusion in a veterinary teaching hospital were prospectively recruited for this observational study. A slide agglutination method and a commercial test were both used for major and minor crossmatching. We measured increase in packed cell volume at 12 hours after transfusion relative to the mass of red blood cells given per recipient bodyweight and recorded transfusion reactions. Results: A total of 101 cats was included. Crossmatch incompatibility was common using the slide agglutination method (27% and 10% major and minor incompatibility, respectively), but less common with the commercial test (major and minor incompatibility both 4%). Crossmatch incompatibility with any method was not associated with less effective transfusion in terms of change in packed cell volume. Transfusion reactions occurred in 20 cats, most commonly febrile non‐haemolytic transfusion reactions (n = 9) and haemolytic transfusion reactions (n = 7). The commercial test appeared to be most specific for predicting haemolytic transfusion reactions. Clinical Significance: Transfusion reactions were fairly common but not associated with increased mortality. Use of crossmatch‐compatible blood did not lead to a greater increase in PCV at 12 hours. The commercial test may predict a haemolytic transfusion reaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To describe the use of a xenotransfusion protocol, the outcome of xenotransfusion in recipient cats and to assess owner memory of the xenotransfusion. Materials and Methods: Cats administered xenotransfusions in two hospitals between January 2016 and July 2018 were included. Adherence to xenotransfusion protocol, cause of anaemia, blood type, packed cell volume (PCV), transfusion volume, transfusion reactions, PCV 12 hours after transfusion and survival to discharge were recorded. Owners of surviving cats were questioned to assess if they remembered that a xenotransfusion had been performed. Results: Forty‐nine cats underwent the xenotransfusion protocol. The most common causes of anaemia were surgical blood loss (n = 17), immune‐mediated haemolytic anaemia (n = 14) and neoplasia (n = 14). Median PCV before transfusion was 10%. Six cats (12%) had febrile non‐haemolytic transfusion reactions. Median PCV 12 hours after transfusion was 25%. Ten cats (20%) died or were euthanased within 24 hours of xenotransfusion. A delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction occurred in 25 of 39 (64%) cats manifesting as icterus in 15 cats after a median of 1.9 days and haemolytic serum in 19 cats after a median of 2 days. Of the 18 cats alive at 1 week after discharge, 15 (83%) were still alive at a median of 173 days after xenotransfusion. All owners contacted remembered that their cats had received a xenotransfusion. Clinical Significance: Xenotransfusion of canine packed red blood cells to cats is possible but haemolysis should be expected between 1 and 6 days after transfusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abnormal platelet activity can either lead to bleeding tendencies or inappropriate thrombus formation and can occur secondarily to a wide variety of disease processes, with a range of clinical consequences and severity. This article will discuss the pathophysiology of platelet function abnormalities and consider a logical diagnostic approach applicable to veterinary practice. Recent advances in platelet function testing will then be discussed, with regards to detection of platelet dysfunction and tailoring of pharmacological manipulation. Although many of these tests are still confined to research or academic institutions, techniques for indirectly assessing platelet function are starting to become more widely available. Although we still require further research to develop guidelines for the use of these tests in clinical decision‐making, the recent advances in this field are an exciting step forward in being able to detect and manage platelet dysfunction in both primary care and referral practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fibrinolytic system is activated concurrently with coagulation; it regulates haemostasis and prevents thrombosis by restricting clot formation to the area of vascular injury and dismantling the clot as healing occurs. Dysregulation of the fibrinolytic system, which results in hyperfibrinolysis, may manifest as clinically important haemorrhage. Hyperfibrinolysis occurs in cats and dogs secondary to a variety of congenital and acquired disorders. Acquired disorders associated with hyperfibrinolysis, such as trauma, cavitary effusions, liver disease and Angiostrongylus vasorum infection, are commonly encountered in primary care practice. In addition, delayed haemorrhage reported in greyhounds following trauma and routine surgical procedures has been attributed to a hyperfibrinolytic disorder, although this has yet to be characterised. The diagnosis of hyperfibrinolysis is challenging and, until recently, has relied on techniques that are not readily available outside referral hospitals. With the recent development of point‐of‐care viscoelastic techniques, assessment of fibrinolysis is now possible in referral practice. This will provide the opportunity to target haemorrhage due to hyperfibrinolysis with antifibrinolytic drugs and thereby reduce associated morbidity and mortality. The fibrinolytic system and the conditions associated with increased fibrinolytic activity in cats and dogs are the focus of this review article. In addition, laboratory and point‐of‐care techniques for assessing hyperfibrinolysis and antifibrinolytic treatment for patients with haemorrhage are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Pleural effusion is a common cause of dyspnea in cats. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide ( NT-pro BNP) measurement, using a first-generation quantitative ELISA, in plasma and pleural fluid differentiates cardiac from noncardiac causes of pleural effusion. Hypothesis/Objectives To determine whether NT-pro BNP measurements using second-generation quantitative ELISA and point-of-care ( POC) tests in plasma and pleural fluid distinguish cardiac from noncardiac pleural effusions and how results compare to the first-generation ELISA. Animals Thirty-eight cats ( US cohort) and 40 cats ( UK cohort) presenting with cardiogenic or noncardiogenic pleural effusion. Methods Prospective cohort study. Twenty-one and 17 cats in the US cohort, and 22 and 18 cats in the UK cohort were classified as having cardiac or noncardiac pleural effusion, respectively. NT-proBNP concentrations in paired plasma and pleural fluid samples were measured using second-generation ELISA and POC assays. Results The second-generation ELISA differentiated cardiac from noncardiac pleural effusion with good diagnostic accuracy (plasma: sensitivity, 95.2%, specificity, 82.4%; pleural fluid: sensitivity, 100%, specificity, 76.5%). NT-proBNP concentrations were greater in pleural fluid (719 pmol/L (134-1500)) than plasma (678 pmol/L (61-1500), P = 0.003), resulting in different cut-off values depending on the sample type. The POC test had good sensitivity (95.2%) and specificity (87.5%) when using plasma samples. In pleural fluid samples, the POC test had good sensitivity (100%) but low specificity (64.7%). Diagnostic accuracy was similar between first- and second-generation ELISA assays. Conclusions and clinical importance Measurement of NT-pro BNP using a quantitative ELISA in plasma and pleural fluid or POC test in plasma, but not pleural fluid, distinguishes cardiac from noncardiac causes of pleural effusion in cats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To assess whether pleural fluid and urine amino terminal proB-type natriuretic peptide ( NT-proBNP) can distinguish cardiac from non-cardiac causes of pleural effusion. Methods Blood, urine and pleural fluid were prospectively collected from cats presenting with pleural effusion categorised as cardiac or non-cardiac in origin. NT-ProBNP concentrations were measured using a feline-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Groups were statistically compared and receiver operating characteristic curves constructed to determine cut-offs to distinguish cardiac from non-cardiac pleural effusion in plasma, pleural fluid and urine. Results Forty cats with pleural effusion (22 cardiac and 18 non-cardiac) were studied. NT-proBNP concentrations in plasma and pleural fluid were strongly correlated. Plasma (P<0·001) and pleural fluid (P<0·001) NT-proBNP concentrations and urinary NT-proBNT/creatinine ratios (P=0·035) were significantly higher in the cardiac group. After receiver operating characteristic curve analysis a plasma NT-proBNP cut-off of 214·3 pmol/ mL was suggested [sensitivity=86·4% (95% CI: 66·7 to 95·3%), specificity=88·9% (95% CI: 67·2 to 96·9%)] and a pleural fluid NT-proBNP cut-off of 322·3 pmol/ mL was suggested [sensitivity=100% (95% CI: 85·1 to 100%), specificity=94·4% (95% CI: 74·2 to 99·0%)]. No cut-off with adequate sensitivity and specificity for urinary NT-proBNP/creatinine ratios was suggested. Clinical Significance Measurement of NT-proBNP in pleural fluid distinguishes cardiac from non-cardiac causes of pleural effusion in cats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two-year-old female neutered Tibetan terrier was referred following a one-month history of lethargy, inappetence and pancytopenia, which had been poorly responsive to immunosuppressive and fluoroquinolone treatment. The dog was diagnosed with pure red cell aplasia and was found to be positive for Ehrlichia canis by both antibody titre measurement and polymerase chain reaction. The dog lived in London and had not travelled outside the UK. The dog was treated with doxycycline, prednisolone and ciclosporin, but died as a result of gastrointestinal tract haemorrhage. To the authors' knowledge, this represents the first reported case of Ehrlichia canis in a dog in the UK with no previous travel history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To evaluate relationships between heart rate and clinical variables in healthy dogs and dogs examined at a referral hospital. Methods Clinical data were extracted from the electronic patient records of a first opinion group (5000 healthy dogs) and a referral hospital (5849 dogs). Univariable and multi-variable general linear models were used to assess associations between heart rate and clinical characteristics. Separate multi-variable models were constructed for first opinion and referral populations. Results In healthy dogs, heart rate was negatively associated with bodyweight (P<0·001) but was higher in Chihuahuas. The mean difference in heart rate between a 5 and 55 kg dog was 10·5 beats per minute. In dogs presenting to a referral hospital, heart rate was negatively associated with bodyweight (P<0·001) and the following breeds; border collie, golden retriever, Labrador retriever, springer spaniel and West Highland white terrier and positively associated with age, admitting service (emergency and critical care, emergency first opinion and cardiology) and the following breeds; Cavalier King Charles spaniel, Staffordshire bull terrier and Yorkshire terrier. Clinical Significance Bodyweight, age, breed and disease status all influence heart rate in dogs, although these factors account for a relatively small proportion of the overall variability in heart rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To describe a method of faecal smear production and to determine the sensitivity and specificity of faecal smear for detection of parasitic larvae using Baermann sedimentation as a gold standard Methods: Faecal smears were produced from samples submitted to the Royal Veterinary College Diagnostic Laboratory Service for Baermann sedimentation. An inexperienced and an experienced assessor each examined the smear for larvae for a maximum of five minutes. Results: One hundred and eighty six samples were analysed of which 28 were positive for Angiostrongylus vasorum on Baermann sedimentation. The experienced assessor had a faecal smear sensitivity of 61% and a specificity of 100%. The inexperienced assessor had a faecal smear sensitivity of 54% and a specificity of 95%. Clinical Significance: Faecal smear is an effective and cheap aid to diagnosis of canine angiostrongylosis which can be readily performed in general practice. Its use leads to a rapid detection of infection compared to other available methods. This could lead to swifter treatment of the disease and a decrease in inappropriate diagnostics. A further diagnostic method, such as Baermann sedimentation, is recommended whether the faecal smear result is positive or negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To describe the prevalence of systemic hypertension in cats with community-acquired acute kidney injury and investigate its relationship with disease severity. Materials and Methods Retrospective study of cats presenting to the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals, Royal Veterinary College with acute kidney injury between 2007 and 2015. Systolic blood pressure was measured using Doppler sphygmomanometry and systemic hypertension was defined pressures ê150 mmHg. Median systolic blood pressure measurement, grade of acute kidney injury (as defined by the International Renal Interest Society), serum creatinine on admission, anuria or oliguria, length of hospitalisation, survival to discharge and six-month survival were all recorded. Results Forty-six cats were included; 21/48 (48.8%) showed systemic hypertension on admission and was severe (ê180 mmHg) in 8/43 (18.6%). During the whole hospitalisation period, systemic hypertension was detected in 27/46 (58.7%) cases and severe in 13/46 (28.2%). Systemic hypertension did not appear to be statistically associated with grade of kidney injury, serum creatinine on presentation, oliguria or anuria. Clinical Significance Systemic hypertension is common in cats with acute kidney injury but does not appear to be associated with its severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the cowpox virus pneumonia in a domestic cat in Great Britain. The disease typically manifests as an ulcerated skin lesion at the site of viral entry, followed by viraemia and the development of multiple secondary skin lesions after five to 14 days. An image of bronchiolar epithelial cell with an intracytoplasmic perinuclear-located A type inclusion body is presented.