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Background: Although factors such as adverse family background have been widely examined, little is known about the prevalence or potential impact of developmental language disorder (DLD) on risk of recidivism in young people with history of criminal justice system contact. Methods: A total of 145 young offenders participated. An adversity score was constructed based on information found in youth justice service records. Data collected included standardised measures of expressive and receptive language, nonverbal IQ and the inventory of callous–unemotional traits. Survival analysis was performed to examine differences in reoffending risk between young offenders with and without DLD. Results: The cumulative incidence of reoffending within a year of the young person's court order was markedly raised in the DLD group (62%; 95% CI 52, 72) versus the non‐DLD group (25%; 95% CI 16, 39). Furthermore, in the final multivariable survival analysis the independent elevation in risk linked with DLD was not greatly attenuated with adjustment for nonverbal IQ, adversity score, age at first offence, number of previous offences and deprivation score. DLD was the most significant predictor with an adjusted hazard ratio of 2.61 (95% CI 1.80, 3.78). Conclusions: Young offenders with DLD are more than twice as likely to reoffend than their unaffected offending peers. DLD is a powerful predictor of recidivism above and beyond other known risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A range of factors may impact whether children access speech–language pathology (SLP) services, beyond their communication difficulties. For instance, co‐occurring psychosocial difficulties may amplify children's observable difficulties, leading to greater access. It is important to examine such associations because they may reflect inherent differences between children with language difficulties who access services and those who do not, indicating under‐servicing for subgroups in the community. Aims: The first aim was to examine possible differences in psychosocial difficulties between children with language difficulties who did versus did not access SLP services in the past 12 months. The second aim was to examine the unique contribution of psychosocial difficulties to service access, over and above language difficulties and other common predictors of service access. Methods & Procedures: Analyses were carried out on data gathered from 808 eleven‐year‐old children who took part in the Early Language in Victoria Study (ELVS). Children were categorized as having language difficulties based on their CELF‐4 Core Language Score with a cut‐point of > 1.25 SD below the mean. The primary outcome measure was access to SLP services in the past 12 months. Comparison and predictor variables included children's psychosocial difficulties, language skills, relevant demographic variables (gender, caregiver education) and prior SLP access. Outcomes & Results: A total of 42 children with language difficulties who had accessed SLP services had significantly greater psychosocial difficulties than those who had not (SDQ Total Difficulties, U = 53.00, z = –4.080, p < 0.001). Using binary logistic regression, a model examining child gender, caregiver education, psychosocial difficulties (internalizing and externalizing behaviours), language difficulties and prior SLP access (in earlier years) was significant χ2 (8) = 137.285, p< 0.001, with increased externalizing difficulties (OR = 1.213, p < 0.001), increased communication difficulties (OR = 0.949, p < 0.001), and prior SLP access (OR = 7.430, p < 0.001) identified as unique predictors of service access. Conclusions & Implications: The results indicate that children with language difficulties who have comorbid psychosocial difficulties are more likely to access services than those who do not. Accordingly, children with language difficulties who access clinical services may require interdisciplinary support, while children without co‐morbid psychosocial difficulties may be under‐referred for SLP services. What this paper addsWhat is already known on this subjectThere is evidence that a range of personal and contextual factors impact the likelihood of a person accessing healthcare services beyond the specific issue of concern.What this paper adds to existing knowledgeIn this population‐based study, we provide statistical evidence that children with language difficulties who had higher levels of psychosocial difficulties were more likely to access SLP services than those who had lower levels.What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?Children with language difficulties who access SLP services may require support for psychosocial difficulties, while children who do not have comorbid difficulties may be underserviced in the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) are at higher risk of poorer mental health compared with children without DLD. There are, however, considerable individual differences that need to be interpreted, including the identification of protective factors. Aims: Pathways from the early language and communication environment (ELCE, 1–2 years) to internalizing (peer and emotional problems) and externalizing (conduct problems and hyperactivity) problems in middle childhood (11 years) were mapped using structural equation modelling. Specifically, the role of indirect pathways via social skills (friendships, play and prosociality) in childhood (7–9 years) was investigated. Methods & Procedures: Secondary analysis of existing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) was undertaken. The study sample consisted of 6531 children (394 with DLD). Outcomes & Results: The pathways from the ELCE to internalizing and externalizing problems were similar for children with and without DLD. For both groups, a positive ELCE was associated with more competent social play and higher levels of prosociality in childhood, which in turn were associated with fewer externalizing problems in middle childhood. Furthermore, better friendships and higher levels of prosociality in childhood were both associated with fewer internalizing problems in middle childhood. Conclusions & Implications: A child's ELCE is potentially important not only for the development of language but also for social development. Furthermore, in the absence of adequate language ability, play and prosocial behaviours may allow children with DLD to deploy, practise and learn key social skills, thus protecting against externalizing problems. We suggest that consideration be given to play‐ and prosociality‐based educational and therapeutic services for children with DLD. What this paper addsWhat is already known on this subjectOn the whole, children with DLD tend to have poorer mental health compared with their unaffected peers. There are, however, considerable differences and poor outcomes are not inevitable.What this study adds to the existing knowledgeWe demonstrate that children's ECLE is important for the development of social play behaviours and prosociality. Whilst children with DLD tend to have less competent social play and lower levels of prosociality compared with their unaffected peers, those with more competent social play and higher levels of prosociality are likely to have fewer externalizing problems later in childhood. We speculate that in the absence of adequate structural language ability, play and prosocial behaviours allow children with DLD to deploy, practise and learn key relationship skills, alongside behavioural and emotional regulation skills, thus protecting against externalizing problems. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?Understanding the relationships among play, prosociality and externalizing problems may pave the way for play‐ and prosociality‐based interventions in children with DLD. This may be particularly appealing for practitioners as such interventions capitalize on one of the most intuitive means of learning in childhood: play with friends. The likelihood of acceptability and engagement with such interventions may be higher in children than for traditional adult‐led, paper‐and‐pencil activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Previous research demonstrates an association between developmental language disorder (DLD) and criminal offending. International research also implicates alexithymia as being over‐represented in forensic samples. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the psycholinguistic and socioemotional profiles of males and females in the youth justice system, with a focus on first‐time entrants. In the context of restorative justice (RJ) underpinning youth justice disposals, this allows for informed intervention and identifies those who may be compromised in their ability to effectively engage in certain interventions. Methods: Participants (N = 145) from a triage centre and youth offending teams, with a mean age of 15.8, completed a range of standardized psycholinguistic assessments considering non‐verbal IQ, expressive and receptive language measures, and literacy. Additionally, socioemotional measures completed included The Alexithymia Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Results: Developmental language disorder was present in 87 participants. Except for the emotional score, no statistically significant gender differences were found. The mean language scores for the DLD group were more than 2.25 standard deviations below the normative mean, and they demonstrated greater literacy difficulties. A high proportion of the group met the criteria for alexithymia/possible alexithymia (60%), and this was not associated with DLD. Conclusions: High prevalence values for DLD and socioemotional difficulties, not generally gender‐specific, were found. These difficulties have the possibility to compromise a young person's ability to engage in rehabilitative strategies. Language assessment and identification of difficulties, especially DLD, upon entry to the youth justice service, would assist when planning interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developmental language disorder (DLD) and speech sound disorder (SSD) are common, and although scientific evidence for structural and functional alterations in DLD/SSD is accumulating, current neuroimaging studies provide an incongruent picture. Here, we hypothesized that children affected by DLD and SSD present with gray matter (or gray matter asymmetry) aberrations in brain areas associated with language processing compared to typically developing (TD) children. To assess this hypothesis, we enhanced MRI‐based information with microscopically defined cytoarchitectonic probabilities of Broca's area (BA 45, BA 44) as well as an auditory area (TE 3.0). We detected a larger rightward gray matter asymmetry in BA 45 in children with DLD (n = 13) and with SSD (n = 18) compared to TD children (n = 18), albeit only on a trend level. Interestingly though, we observed significantly larger gray matter volumes in right BA 45 in DLD compared to SSD children (and also compared to TD children). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Developmental language disorder (DLD) presents a considerable barrier for young adults to engage in further education and training. Early studies with young adults with DLD revealed poor educational achievement and lack of opportunities to progress in education. More recent studies have provided more positive findings. Relatively sparse data exist, however, on current cohorts and the factors that predict outcomes. Aims: To examine educational and employment outcomes in young adulthood in a sample of people with histories of DLD compared with an age‐matched peer group without DLD. We ask: How do educational pathways and early jobs compare between those with and without DLD? Are young adults with DLD receiving similar levels of income as their peers? To what extent are language and literacy abilities associated with outcomes? Methods & Procedures: Participants included 84 individuals with DLD (67% males) and 88 age‐matched peers without DLD (56% males). Participants were on average 24 years of age. They completed a battery of psycholinguistic, literacy and nonverbal skills assessments. Data were also collected on educational qualifications, current educational status, extent of educational support received, employment status, history and support, as well as current income. Outcomes & Results: Those with DLD obtained lower academic and vocational qualifications. Higher educational/vocational qualifications were associated with better language, better reading and higher performance IQ (PIQ). There were few differences between the two groups in terms of engagement with education, but the mean age at leaving education was significantly earlier in the participants with DLD. Substantially more participants with DLD reported receiving support or dispensation from their educational institution. There was no significant difference between groups in the proportion of young people currently employed, though a higher proportion of the age‐matched peers was in work full time. Participants with DLD were much more likely to be in non‐professional occupations. However, when examining pay in relation to types of occupation, the groups’ incomes were broadly comparable. Conclusions & Implications: At the group level, young people with a history of DLD more commonly have less skilled employment and more rarely achieve professional roles. At the individual level there is considerable variation with smaller but not trivial proportions of young adults with a history of DLD showing good educational and employment outcomes. There are positive aspects to early adult outcomes for some young people with a history of DLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: There is now substantial literature demonstrating that a disproportionate number of young people who come into contact with youth justice services evidence unidentified language difficulties. These young people, therefore, have received little or no professional input in this area. Conversely, there is a dearth of research pertaining to criminality outcomes among those individuals with identified developmental language disorders (DLD) who have received such interventions. Aims: To examine police‐initiated contact and substance use outcomes of young adults with a history of identified DLD versus age‐matched peers (AMP). Additionally, self‐reported rule breaking behaviours and aggression are considered. We hypothesize that early identification/intervention reduces engagement with risky behaviour such as substance and alcohol use as well as offending‐related behaviours. Methods & Procedures: Adversarial police‐initiated contacts were examined in 84 young adults with a history of DLD and 88 AMP. Rule‐breaking and aggression were evaluated using the Achenbach Adult Self‐Report for ages 18–59 years. Outcomes & Results: Adults with a history of DLD who received targeted intervention during their school years reported less contact with their local police service compared with AMPs at age 24. Comparable proportions of both groups reported current alcohol consumption, but group differences were found relating to alcohol use. No group differences in rule‐breaking behaviours were found, but the DLD group was found to have a statistically significant higher raw score on the aggressive behaviour scale. Conclusions & Implications: There is a need for early identification of children with DLD. Early intervention aimed at ameliorating such difficulties could possibly have distal outcomes in relation to offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Lack of agreement about criteria and terminology for children's language problems affects access to services as well as hindering research and practice. We report the second phase of a study using an online Delphi method to address these issues. In the first phase, we focused on criteria for language disorder. Here we consider terminology. Methods The Delphi method is an iterative process in which an initial set of statements is rated by a panel of experts, who then have the opportunity to view anonymised ratings from other panel members. On this basis they can either revise their views or make a case for their position. The statements are then revised based on panel feedback, and again rated by and commented on by the panel. In this study, feedback from a second round was used to prepare a final set of statements in narrative form. The panel included 57 individuals representing a range of professions and nationalities. Results We achieved at least 78% agreement for 19 of 21 statements within two rounds of ratings. These were collapsed into 12 statements for the final consensus reported here. The term 'Language Disorder' is recommended to refer to a profile of difficulties that causes functional impairment in everyday life and is associated with poor prognosis. The term, 'Developmental Language Disorder' ( DLD) was endorsed for use when the language disorder was not associated with a known biomedical aetiology. It was also agreed that (a) presence of risk factors (neurobiological or environmental) does not preclude a diagnosis of DLD, (b) DLD can co-occur with other neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. ADHD) and (c) DLD does not require a mismatch between verbal and nonverbal ability. Conclusions This Delphi exercise highlights reasons for disagreements about terminology for language disorders and proposes standard definitions and nomenclature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children and adolescents with language impairment (LI) are at risk of emotional health difficulties. However, less is known about whether these difficulties continue into adulthood for this group, or about the potential role of environmental resources (e.g., social support) or internal resources (e.g., self‐efficacy). This study investigates emotional health in 81 adults with a history of developmental LI (aged 24) compared with 87 age‐matched peers (AMPs) using Beck Inventories. Social support and self‐efficacy measures were examined as predictors. The results were fourfold: (1) adults with LI had higher levels of emotional health problems; (2) whilst the availability of social support was similar across groups, people with LI received more help from others compared to peers; (3) social support was not significantly related to emotional health in those with LI – in contrast, for AMPs, uptake of support indicated poorer emotional health; (4) self‐efficacy was the strongest predictor of emotional health in both groups and fully mediated the relationship between language and emotional health (no moderation by group). This cross‐sectional study has implications for concurrent factors that might affect emotional health outcomes for children and young people with and without LI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background In general, children with specific language impairment (SLI) tend to fall behind their typically developing (TD) peers in educational attainment. Less is known about how children with SLI fare in particular areas of the curriculum and what predicts their levels of performance. Aims To compare the distributions of performance of children with SLI in three core school subjects (English, Mathematics and Science); to test the possibility that performance would vary across the core subjects; and to examine the extent to which language impairment predicts performance. Methods & Procedures This study was conducted in England and reports historical data on educational attainments. Teacher assessment and test scores of 176 eleven-year-old children with SLI were examined in the three core subjects and compared with known national norms. Possible predictors of performance were measured, including language ability at ages 7 and 11, educational placement type, and performance IQ. Outcomes & Results Children with SLI, compared with national norms, were found to be at a disadvantage in core school subjects. Nevertheless, some children attained the levels expected of TD peers. Performance was poorest in English; relative strengths were indicated in Science and, to a lesser extent, in Mathematics. Language skills were significant predictors of performance in all three core subjects. PIQ was the strongest predictor for Mathematics. For Science, both early language skills at 7 years and PIQ made significant contributions. Conclusions & Implications Language impacts on the school performance of children with SLI, but differentially across subjects. English for these children is the most challenging of the core subjects, reflecting the high levels of language demand it incurs. Science is an area of relative strength and mathematics appears to be intermediate, arguably because some tasks in these subjects can be performed with less reliance on verbal processing. Many children with SLI do have the potential to reach or exceed educational targets that are set at national levels for TD children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Peer relations is a vulnerable area of functioning in children with specific language impairment ( SLI), but little is known about the developmental trajectories of individuals. Methods Peer problems were investigated over a 9-year period (from 7 to 16 years of age) in 171 children with a history of SLI. Discrete factor growth modelling was used to chart developmental trajectories. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate factors associated with group membership. Results Four distinct developmental trajectories were identified: low-level/no problems in peer relations (22.2% of participants), childhood-limited problems (12.3%), childhood-onset persistent problems (39.2%) and adolescent-onset problems (26.3%). Risk of poor trajectories of peer relations was greater for those children with pragmatic language difficulties. Prosocial behaviour was the factor most strongly associated with trajectory group membership. Overall, the more prosocial children with better pragmatic language skills and lower levels of emotional problems had less difficulty in developing peer relations. Conclusions Analysis of developmental trajectories enriches our understanding of social development. A sizeable minority in the present sample sustained positive relations through childhood and adolescence, and others overcame early difficulties to achieve low levels of problems by their early teens; the majority, however, showed childhood-onset persistent or adolescent-onset problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Sex chromosome aneuploidies increase the risk of spoken or written language disorders but individuals with specific language impairment ( SLI) or dyslexia do not routinely undergo cytogenetic analysis. We assess the frequency of sex chromosome aneuploidies in individuals with language impairment or dyslexia. Method Genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping was performed in three sample sets: a clinical cohort of individuals with speech and language deficits (87 probands: 61 males, 26 females; age range 4 to 23 years), a replication cohort of individuals with SLI, from both clinical and epidemiological samples (209 probands: 139 males, 70 females; age range 4 to 17 years), and a set of individuals with dyslexia (314 probands: 224 males, 90 females; age range 7 to 18 years). Results In the clinical language-impaired cohort, three abnormal karyotypic results were identified in probands (proband yield 3.4%). In the SLI replication cohort, six abnormalities were identified providing a consistent proband yield (2.9%). In the sample of individuals with dyslexia, two sex chromosome aneuploidies were found giving a lower proband yield of 0.6%. In total, two XYY, four XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), three XXX, one XO (Turner syndrome), and one unresolved karyotype were identified. Interpretation The frequency of sex chromosome aneuploidies within each of the three cohorts was increased over the expected population frequency (approximately 0.25%) suggesting that genetic testing may prove worthwhile for individuals with language and literacy problems and normal non-verbal IQ. Early detection of these aneuploidies can provide information and direct the appropriate management for individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Identifying 3-4-year-olds who are most at risk of persisting language difficulties, and possibly specific language impairment (SLI), is difficult due to the natural variation of language in young children. In older children, markers for SLI have been identified that differentiate between children with and without SLI. It is not known whether these markers can be used at an earlier age to identify children most at risk of persisting language difficulties. Aims To identify possible risk markers of current status that distinguish children who have specific expressive language delay (SELD) from the variation observed in normally developing children at age 3;0-4;0 and 4;0-5;0. To determine the most suitable measure(s) that would predict which children with SELD at age 3;0-4;0 were likely to have persistent expressive language delay (PELD) at age 4;0-5;0. Methods & Procedures Forty-seven children with SELD and 47 children with typical language development (TLD) were assessed on language, nonverbal IQ and marker tasks at age 3;0-4;0 (baseline). Ninety-one children were reassessed on the measures one year later (follow-up). At both time points, the marker tasks were compared with a reference standard (Expressive Communication subscale (EC) of the Preschool Language Scale-3 (PLS-3) (UK)) to determine the most useful marker for identifying children with SELD. Possible predictors were examined to determine the most suitable measure(s) that would predict which children with SELD at baseline were likely to have PELD at follow-up. Outcome & Results A modified version of Recalling Sentences, a subtest of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF)-Preschool UK, was the most useful marker for identifying children with SELD at baseline and at follow-up. Thirty-five (76.1%) of the 46 children with SELD at baseline had PELD at follow-up. Performance on the Auditory Comprehension (AC) and EC subscales of the PLS-3 (UK) and on modified Recalling Sentences at age 3;0-4;0 were predictors of PELD at age 4;0-5;0. Conclusions & implications A modified Recalling Sentences task was a good risk marker for SELD at age 3;0-4;0 and SELD at age 4;0-5;0. PLS-3 AC, PLS-3 EC and modified Recalling Sentences at baseline were the best predictors of PELD. The use of modified Recalling Sentences as a predictive marker requires confirmation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Contemporary adolescents use e-mail for a variety of purposes, including peer communication and education. Research into these uses has focused on typically developing individuals; much less is known about the use of e-mail by exceptional youth. Aims: The present study examined the structure and form of e-mail messages sent by adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Methods & Procedures: Thirty-eight adolescents with a history of SLI and 56 typically developing (TD) peers were assessed on measures of nonverbal abilities, core language skills and literacy skills (reading and spelling). The participants were asked to compose an e-mail reply to a standard e-mail sent by an experimenter. These reply e-mails were coded for linguistic structure, readability and spelling errors. Two adult raters, blind to the participants' language ability, judged how understandable the e-mails were, how grammatically correct the e-mails were, and also the sender's command of the English language. Outcomes & Results: Adolescents with a history of SLI produced e-mails that were similar to those sent by their TD peers in terms of structure and readability. However, they made significantly more spelling errors. Furthermore, the adult raters considered the messages from participants with a history of SLI to be of poorer standard than those sent by their TD peers. Conclusions & Implications: The findings suggest that the e-mail messages of adolescents with a history of SLI provide indicators of the sender's language and literacy skills. Implications for intervention and technology development are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adolescents and young adults with specific language impairment (SLI) are at risk of experiencing emotional health symptoms, in particular depression and anxiety disorder. However, there is a dearth of research examining issues of stability versus change in symptomatology across time. Aims: To examine depressive and anxiety symptoms reported by adolescents with and without a history of SLI at 16 years, and a year later. Methods & Procedures: Depressive and anxiety symptoms were examined in 90 adolescents with SLI and in 91 adolescents with typical development (TD) initially at 16 years and again at 17 years. Outcomes & Results: Participants with SLI experienced significantly more depressive and anxiety symptoms than participants with TD at 16 years, and continued to experience significantly more anxiety symptoms at 17 years. Females, regardless of language status (SLI versus TD), were more vulnerable than males. The group with SLI evidenced a significant drop in depressive symptoms over the year. A similar change in anxiety symptoms was not apparent. Regression analyses revealed that for individuals with SLI peer problems at 16 years predicted concurrent depressive symptoms, but behavioural factors did not contribute significantly to depressive symptoms at 17 years. For individuals with typical development, hyperactivity at 16 years predicted depressive symptoms at both 16 and 17 years. Language ability and non-verbal IQ did not predict depressive symptoms. Adolescents who experienced more bullying at 16 years were more likely to become, or remain, at risk for depression at 17 years. Conclusions & Implications: Anxiety symptoms appear to be a consistent feature of some individuals with SLI in young adulthood whilst depressive symptoms can diminish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Social interactions can be a source of social stress for adolescents. Little is known about how adolescents with developmental difficulties, such as specific language impairment (SLI), feel when interacting socially. Participants included 28 adolescents with SLI and 28 adolescents with typical language abilities (TL). Self-report measures of social stress, social skills and social acceptance were obtained. Participants with SLI reported experiencing significantly more social stress than did participants with TL. Both groups judged themselves as having adequate social skills and positive social acceptance. Expressive language ability was negatively associated with social stress, but did not predict social stress when social factors were included in the regression model. Perceived social skills and social acceptance scores predicted social stress, in that poorer scores predicted more social stress. Despite perceiving themselves as having adequate social skills and as being socially accepted, social interactions are nonetheless a source of stress for adolescents with SLI. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Grammatical morphology, particularly the use of the past tense in English, has been identified as a behavioural marker for specific language impairment. However, there is a dearth of instruments that assess key verb features, are short and easy to administer for clinical use, and have normative data for the UK population. Aims: The present study aimed to develop a short version of a past-tense task (named the PTT-20) and to provide UK normative data for a large control sample of primary school-age children. Methods & Procedures: The task consisted of 20 items taken from a well-known 52-item task developed by Marchman, Wulfeck, and Ellis Weismer in 1999, retaining the key features and variety of verbs of the original design. It was administered to 424 typically developing children aged 5;0 to 11;6 years. Outcomes & Results: The short version reduced administration time by two-thirds to around 5-8 minutes. Normative data revealed developmental progression in performance throughout the primary school years, with the task exhibiting ceiling effects in 29% of children by age 11 years. Expected and impaired performance indicators are presented by age band, that is, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 years. Comparisons between identified children with specific language impairment and typically developing children revealed significant differences in performance. The PTT-20 correlated highly with the full 52-item task and had good internal consistency. Conclusions & Implications: The PTT-20 can be a useful tool in the identification and assessment of young school-age children with suspected language difficulties. It can also be used in research and practice as a benchmark against which to compare the ability of children with identified language impairments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) often have subsequent problems with reading skills, but there have been some discrepant findings as to the developmental time course of these skills. This study investigates the developmental trajectories of reading skills over a 9-year time-span (from 7 to 16 years of age) in a large sample of individuals with a history of SLI. Relationships among reading skills, autistic symptomatology, and language-related abilities were also investigated. The results indicate that both reading accuracy and comprehension are deficient but that the development of these skills progresses in a consistently parallel fashion to what would be expected from a normative sample of same age peers. Language-related abilities were strongly associated with reading skills. Unlike individuals with SLI only, those with SLI and additional autistic symptomatology had adequate reading accuracy but did not differ from the individuals with SLI only in reading comprehension. They exhibited a significant gap between what they could read and what they could understand when reading. These findings provide strong evidence that individuals with SLI experience continued, long-term deficits in reading skills from childhood to adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Much evidence has accumulated to indicate memory deficits in children with specific language impairment. However, most research has focused on working memory impairments in these children. Less is known about the functioning of other memory systems in this population. Aims: This study examined procedural and declarative memory in young children with and without specific language impairment. Methods & Procedures: A total of 15 children with specific language impairment and 15 non-impaired children of comparable age, gender and handedness were presented with measures of procedural and declarative memory. Procedural memory was assessed using a Serial Reaction Time (SRT) Task in which children implicitly learnt a ten-item sequence pattern. Declarative memory for verbal and visual information was assessed using paired associative learning tasks. Outcomes & Results: The results from the SRT Task showed the children with specific language impairment did not learn the sequence at levels comparable with the non-impaired children. On the measures of declarative memory, differences between the groups were observed on the verbal but not the visual task. The differences on the verbal declarative memory task were found after statistically controlling for differences in vocabulary and phonological short-term memory. Conclusions & Implications: The results were interpreted to suggest an uneven profile of memory functioning in specific language impairment. On measures of declarative memory, specific language impairment appears to be associated with difficulties learning verbal information. At the same time, procedural memory is also appears to be impaired. Collectively, this study indicates multiple memory impairments in specific language impairment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several authors have highlighted areas of overlap in symptoms and impairment among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and children with specific language impairment (SLI). By contrast, loss of language and broadly defined regression have been reported as relatively specific to autism. We compare the incidence of language loss and language progression of children with autism and SLI. Methods: We used two complementary studies: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP) and the Manchester Language Study (MLS) involving children with SLI. This yielded a combined sample of 368 children (305 males and 63 females) assessed in late childhood for autism, history of language loss, epilepsy, language abilities and nonverbal IQ. Results: language loss occurred in just 1% of children with SLI but in 15% of children classified as having autism or autism spectrum disorder. Loss was more common among children with autism rather than milder ASD and is much less frequently reported when language development is delayed. For children who lost language skills before their first phrases, the phrased speech milestone was postponed but long-term language skills were not significantly lower than children with autism but without loss. For the few who experienced language loss after acquiring phrased speech, subsequent cognitive performance is more uncertain. Conclusions: Language loss is highly specific to ASD. The underlying developmental abnormality may be more prevalent than raw data might suggest, its possible presence being hidden for children whose language development is delayed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many uses of new media entail processing language content, yet little is known about the relationship between language ability and media use in young people. This study compares educational versus interpersonal uses of home computers in adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Participants were 55 17-year-olds with SLI and 72 typically developing peers. Measures of frequency and ease of computer use were obtained as well as assessments of participants' psycholinguistic skills. Results showed a strong preference for interpersonal computer use in both groups. Virtually all participants engaged with interpersonal new media, finding them relatively easy to use. In contrast, one third of adolescents with SLI did not use educational applications during a typical week. Regression analyses revealed that lower frequency of educational use was associated with poorer language and literacy skills. However, in adolescents with SLI, this association was mediated by perceived ease of use. The findings show that language ability contributes to new media use and that adolescents with SLI are at a greater risk of low levels of engagement with educational technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This investigation reports the results of national educational examinations in secondary schooling for young people who have been participating in the Manchester Language Study. Aims: The emphasis of the study is on furthering understanding of educational outcomes at the end of compulsory education. Methods & Procedures: A total of 120 adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) and 121 adolescents with typical development (TD) who were in their final year of compulsory secondary schooling (mean age = 17;4 years) participated. National educational examination results throughout secondary schooling were collected along with a range of psycholinguistic skills from 11 to 16/17 years. Outcomes & Results: Forty-four per cent of young people with SLI obtained at least one of the expected qualifications at the end of secondary education, indicating some improvements compared with reports on earlier cohorts. Regression analyses revealed that literacy and language skills were predictive of educational attainment after controlling for IQ and maternal education. Nearly one-quarter of the sample of adolescents with SLI was not entered for any examinations at the end of compulsory education. A very strong association between earlier patterns of entry for examinations and patterns of examination entry at school leaving age was found. Conclusions: In addition to performance IQ, concurrent and early literacy and language skills have significant effects on the academic attainments of young people with a history of SLI. The transition from primary to secondary schooling is a crucial time for assessment and evaluation of individual children's needs and levels of support required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This investigation is the second paper of a companion set reporting the outcomes of secondary schooling for young people who have been participating in the Manchester Language Study. Aims: To examine the school context of educational results at 16 years of age and to provide information on the adolescents' post-16 activities. Methods & Procedures: A total of 120 adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI) and 121 adolescents with typical development (TD) in their final year of compulsory secondary schooling (mean age = 17;4 years) participated in the study. Data on educational placement, special education support and provision of statement of special educational needs (SEN) were collected, along with the provision of access arrangements during examinations. Adolescents were interviewed about their levels of expectation and satisfaction with their examination results and their subsequent post-16 activities. Outcomes & Results: Only a small proportion of adolescents attended special units/schools throughout their secondary schooling; a larger proportion consistently attended mainstream schools. Those in receipt of a statement of SEN performed more poorly in their examinations than those without a statement. Around 60% of the adolescents with SLI were provided with some type of access arrangements during their core examinations. The majority (88%) of adolescents with SLI reported that they were satisfied with their educational outcomes. Most adolescents with SLI (91%), regardless of school placement at 16 years, remained in education post-16, with the majority in college settings. Conclusions: Adolescents with a history of SLI have continued difficulties throughout secondary schooling, with three-quarters of the sample receiving some form of special education in a variety of settings. Educational attainment varied across different groups of adolescents but was consistently poorer than the attainment of typically developing peers. Young people with SLI in the 2000s appear to have more opportunities to remain in education post-16 than they did in the 1990s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Recent models of reading ability propose that both phonological and broader language skills are important for the development of literacy. Whilst there are numerous studies that consider the role of phonological skills in literacy, fewer studies have considered the role of broader language skills and reading proficiency. Aims: To examine how phonological skills and broader language skills relate to word reading (including speeded word reading), non-word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. Methods & Procedures: Seventy-one children (mean age = 10.10; 21 girls) with a wide range of reading and language abilities took part in the study. A number of tasks were administered that measured phonological skills (phonological awareness, phonological short-term memory) and broader language skills (vocabulary, morphology, sentence correction, and sentence processing). Outcomes & Results: In support of previous work, both phonological and broader language abilities predicted reading and spelling. The exception was the timed single-word-reading task that was influenced by vocabulary. Reading comprehension was solely predicted by broader language abilities. Conclusions: Both phonological and broader language abilities are involved in the development of reading and spelling, but in the case of reading comprehension, broader language skills are crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social skill and language are known to relate, not least in the example of those with specific language impairment (SLI). However, most of the research examining this trend has been conducted on young primary school age children and the nature of the relationships is unclear. Furthermore, little is known about which young people in general have social difficulties and whether language, social cognition, and social skills are directly associated at this age. In this study, a large cohort made up of young people with a history of SLI (N = 134) and a typically developing (TD) group (N = 124) of the same age were followed up in their final year of compulsory schooling (aged 16). Language, social cognition, social skills, and functional social outcomes (friendships and levels of social activity) were assessed using tasks and questionnaires. Modest associations were found between social cognition, language, and social behaviours, the strongest being between language and social cognition. Regression analyses showed that as a combined group, the adolescents' functional social outcomes were most associated with expressive language, social skill, and social cognitive ability. However, the patterns differed when the groups were analysed separately, with social cognition playing more of a role for those with SLI. These findings suggest that poor language may play a complex role in adolescents' social development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study examined the emotional health of adolescents with and without specific language impairment (SLI). Method: One hundred and thirty-nine adolescents with a history of SLI (15;10 years) and a peer group of 124 adolescents with normal language development (NLD) (15;11 years) participated, who were in their final year of compulsory schooling. The risk of emotional difficulties was assessed using the Moods and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ) and the Child Manifest Anxiety Scale-R (CMAS-R). Comprehensive language and cognition data were available for all participants (NLD and SLI) concurrently and also longitudinally for those with SLI. Results: A clear increased risk of emotional health symptoms was found for the SLI group on both self- and parental-report. Girls scored less favourably than boys when groups were combined, but these were due to the effect of the NLD group, with no gender differences found in the SLI group. Direct links with language and cognition were not obvious. Instead, more diffuse factors such as family history of emotional health difficulties may warrant further investigation. Conclusion: There is a marked higher rate of anxiety and depression symptoms in adolescents with SLI. However, these do not appear to be a direct result of impoverished communicative experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language is drawn on extensively in friendships but has received scant attention in the developmental literature. This study compared friendship quality in 16-year-old adolescents with and without specific language impairment (SLI), testing the extent it is predicted by individual differences in social behaviors and language ability. Participants were 120 adolescents with SLI and 118 typically developing (TD) adolescents. After considering the effects of nonverbal IQ and prosocial and difficult behavior, language measures were found to be associated with friendship quality. The TD participants enjoyed normal friendships, whereas the participants with SLI were more likely to exhibit poorer quality (although 60% experienced good quality of friendships). Longitudinal analyses identified early language difficulties as predictive of poorer friendship quality in adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Narrative may provide a useful way in which to assess the language ability of adolescents with specific language impairment and may be more ecologically valid than standardized tests. However, the language of this age group is seldom studied and, furthermore, the effect of narrative genre has not been explored in detail. Methods & Procedures: A total of 99 typically developing adolescents and 19 peers with specific language impairment were given two different types of narrative task: a story-telling condition and a conversational condition. Four areas of narrative (productivity, syntactic complexity, syntactic errors and performance) were assessed. Outcomes & Results: The group with specific language impairment was poorer on most aspects of narrative confirming recent research that specific language impairment is a long-term disorder. A number of measures also showed interactions between group and genre, with story-telling proving to be a disproportionately more difficult task for the specific language impairment group. Error analysis also suggested that the specific language impairment group was making qualitatively different errors to the typically developing group, even within a genre. Conclusions: Adolescents with specific language impairment are not only poorer at both types of narrative than peers, but also show different patterns of competence and error, and require more support from the narrative-partner. Clinical Implications: Assessments of adolescents are less frequent than at younger ages. This is partly because of the sparsity of tests available in this age range. Qualitative analysis of narrative might prove a useful alternative. The findings suggest that in every-day conversation, young people with specific language impairment manage their difficulties more discreetly and this might make them harder to identify in a mainstream setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research has consistently documented a relationship between phonological short-term memory skills (STM) and specific language impairment (SLI). This study reports on the development of phonological STM abilities over 3 years in 80 young adolescents with a history of SLI, investigating the nature of the relationship between phonological STM abilities and language and literacy skills, and vice versa. Methods: Tests of nonverbal ability, expressive and receptive language, reading and nonword repetition were administered at 11 and 14 years of age. Results: There was striking longitudinal stability of phonological STM capacity in young people with SLI. This finding was consistent for the group as a whole, for subgroups, and at the individual level. Regression analyses revealed reciprocal relationships between phonological STM abilities and language/literacy measures. In particular, phonological STM abilities contributed significantly to later expressive language skills and basic reading skills contributed to later phonological STM abilities. Poor phonological STM abilities related to Expressive-Receptive profiles of SLI (ER-SLI) and to the presence of reading difficulties. Conclusions: Relationships among the processes involved in language, literacy and memory in young adolescents with SLI indicate complex reciprocal interactions across development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Traditionally, autism and specific language impairment (SLI) have been regarded as distinct disorders but, more recently, evidence has been put forward for a closer link between them: a common set of language problems, in particular receptive language difficulties and the existence of intermediate cases including pragmatic language impairment. The present study aimed to examine the prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in a large sample of adolescents with a history of SLI. Method: The presence of autism spectrum disorders was examined in seventy-six 14-year-olds with a confirmed history of SLI. A variety of instruments were employed, including the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) and the Family History Interview (FHI). Results: The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders in young people with SLI was found to be 3.9%, about 10 times what would be expected from the general population. In addition, a much larger number of young people with a history of SLI showed only some autism spectrum symptoms or showed them in a mild form. Conclusions: Young people with SLI have an increased risk of autism. The magnitude of this risk is considerable. In addition, a larger proportion (a quarter of individuals) present with a number of behaviours consistent with autism spectrum disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A longitudinal comparison was made between development of verbal and visuo-spatial short-term memory and vocabulary in children with Down syndrome (DS), children with specific language impairment (SLI), and typically developing children as a control group. Participants were 12 children with DS (6 males, 6 females; mean chronological age 9y 9mo [SD 2.8 mo], range 8y 6mo to 11y 4mo); nine children with SLI (4 males, 5 females; mean chronological age 3y 9mo [SD 4.8mo], range 3y 3mo to 4y 5mo); and 12 typically developing children (5 males, 7 females; mean chronological age 4y 4mo [SD 3.9mo], range 3y 3mo to 4y 3mo). Participants were matched on mental age (mean mental age 4y 3mo). All participants completed verbal short-term memory, visuo-spatial short-term memory, and expressive and receptive vocabulary tasks on three occasions over 1 year. Similarities were seen in the clinical groups for verbal short-term memory. There was some evidence of difficulty in visuo-spatial short-term memory in the children with SLI relative to the other groups, but all three groups showed overlap in visuo-spatial short-term memory performance. At the final time-point vocabulary performance in the clinical groups was similar; the typically developing children showed higher vocabulary abilities than both clinical groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The study is concerned with the cognitive abilities of children with specific language impairment (SLI). Previous research has indicated that children with SLI demonstrate difficulties with certain cognitive tasks despite normal non-verbal IQ scores. It has been suggested that a general processing limitation might account for the pattern of language and cognitive difficulties seen in children with SLI. The performances on a visuo-spatial short-term memory task and a visuo-spatial processing task were considered in a group of young children with SLI. Verbal short-term memory was also measured. Aims: To identify whether children with SLI demonstrate difficulties with visuo-spatial memory as well as verbal short-term memory. To see whether a visuo-spatial processing task without short-term memory requirements is problematic for children with SLI. To consider performance on these tasks over time. Methods & Procedures: Nine children with SLI (mean age 3;9 years at the study outset) and nine typically developing children (mean age 3;9 years at the study outset) were visited on three occasions over 1 year. Verbal short-term memory, visuo-spatial short-term memory and visuo-spatial processing tasks were administered to the children, and performance over time was compared between the two groups. Outcomes & Results: The children with SLI performed at a lower level than the typically developing children on the verbal short-term memory task. Both groups showed similar development on the verbal short-term memory task and the visuo-spatial processing task over time. Only the visuo-spatial short-term memory task showed slower development over time in the children with SLI relative to the typically developing children. Conclusions: Children with SLI demonstrated slower development on a visuo-spatial short-term memory task relative to typically developing children of the same chronological age. This finding has implications for speech and language therapists and other professionals working with children with SLI. It may mean that only certain types of visual support are suitable, and that children with SLI will have difficulty with tasks requiring a high level of processing, or a number of mental manipulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three groups of children with communication disorders were examined using a series of psycholinguistic markers to explore whether the tasks could identify children with impairments other than specific language impairment (SLI), and to examine whether the different groups within this clinical population could be distinguished reliably from one another. The groups comprised children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD; n = 13, all males; mean age 10 years 10 months, range 10 years 2 months to 12 years 6 months); children with primary pragmatic language impairment (PLI) but who did not have definite ASD diagnoses (n = 25, 22 males, three females; mean age 11 years 3 months, range 10 years 2 months to 12 years 5 months); and children with specific language impairment (SLI) without marked pragmatic language difficulties (n = 29, 25 males, 4 females; mean age 10 years 10 months, range 10 years 2 months to 11 years 9 months). Clinical markers examined were: the Children's Non-Word Repetition (CNRep), the Past Tense Task (PTT), and the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Recalling Sentences. First, it was found that the a priori groupings were not sufficiently defined and that four groups were actually present. The PLI group was in fact two separate samples: those with PLI pure and those with some autistic-like behaviours (referred to here as PLI plus, following Bishop 1998). Second, group comparisons indicated that CNRep was significantly lower for children with SLI than all other groups (although this measure was not such a good discriminator using a specificity analysis). Third, the markers were able to discriminate between all types of communication impairment in normal control participants (n = 100; 51 females, 49 males; mean age 11 years, range 10 years 5 months to 11 years 6 months) with sensitivity levels of at least 75% and specificity of 80%. Recalling Sentences was the most efficient marker for all groups. Finally, analysis showed that children with PLI plus could be accurately distinguished from all others, scoring most favourably overall on communication markers and on performance IQ scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adequate assessment of 'normal variation' versus 'abnormal status' is particularly difficult for clinicians working with young children who are under 5 years of age and who present with slow language development. There is therefore clinical motivation to identify possible key difficulties (or 'risk markers') that may distinguish children who are likely to have specific language impairment (SLI) from the variation observed in younger, normally developing children. Aims: The issue of 'risk markers' for SLI was explored. It is well known that the issue of markers is controversial. The view presented here is that a risk marker represents a symptom with no assumption about whether the symptom reflects a single cause or that this symptom alone identifies the disorder. Methods and Procedures: The performance of 32 children with SLI was compared with that of 32 younger normal language-learning children on four potential risk marker tasks: non-word repetition, digit recall, past tense provision and plural marking. Outcomes and Results: The findings suggest that processing markers, particularly non-word repetition, have the potential for indicating SLI risk. In particular, children who fall in the bottom quarter of the normal distribution in non-word repetition (performance below the 25th centile) appear to be at risk of SLI. Conclusions: Although these results need to be interpreted cautiously, the evidence is thought to warrant the use of non-word repetition tasks in clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In addressing an issue rarely explored in research literature, the prevalence and severity of the risk of being bullied at school was measured in 100 children with specific language impairment (SLI). Participants attended a range of different educational placement types and these were compared for braying risk. Furthermore, the risk encountered by children with SLI was compared with that of normally developing age-matched peers. Each participant completed a questionnaire and it was found that 36% of participants with SLI considered themselves at risk of being bullied in school compared with only 12% of the normally developing cohort. No statistically significant difference was found between the risk experienced by participants with SLI attending mainstream education and that by participants attending special education placements. Possible explanations for the results are offered and the relevance of the findings in the context of optimizing the educational experience of children with SLI is highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty-eight children with specific language impairment (SLI) aged 4;4–5;10, and 28 children with normal language (NL) aged 2;4–3;7 were exposed to four novel verbs, and four novel nouns in eight naturalistic play sessions, over 4 weeks. Spontaneous utterances of the novel lexical items in each of the training sessions were recorded and formed the basis of the analyses. The results of the spontaneous production data (across all sessions) revealed that children with NL produced more novel verbs than children with SLI, with a trend for children with SLI to produce more novel nouns. Importantly, children with SLI learned novel verbs at a slower rate than children with NL. Results are discussed in relation to current theories of SLI with particular reference to the SLI critical mass hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the development of grammatical categories (noun and verb) in young language learners. Twenty-eight children with specific language impairment (SLI) with a mean language age of 35 months and 28 children with normal language (NL) with a mean language age of 34 months were exposed to four novel verbs and four novel nouns during 10 experimental child-directed play sessions. The lexical items were modelled with four experimentally controlled argument structures. Both groups of children showed little productivity with syntactic marking of arguments in the novel verb conditions. Thus, both groups of children mostly followed the surface structure of the model presented to them, regardless of the argument they were trying to express. Therefore, there was little evidence of verb-general processes. In contrast, both groups used nouns in semantic roles that had not been modelled for them. Importantly, however, children with SLI still appeared to be more input dependent than NL children. This suggests that children with NL were working with a robust noun schema, whereas children with SLI were not. Taken together, the findings suggest that neither group of children had a grammatical category of verb, but demonstrated a general knowledge of the grammatical category of noun. These findings are discussed in relation to current theories of normal and impaired language development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As part of their longitudinal investigations of a large cohort with a history of specific language impairment (SLI), Professor Gina Conti-Ramsden and her research team based at the School of Education, University of Manchester, Dr Emma Knox, Dr Nicola Botting and Dr Zoë Simkin report on the changing educational placements and National Curriculum assessment outcomes of 200 children at 11 years. Teacher questionnaires reporting on the Year 6 primary education placements of the sample reveal details about the long-term educational needs of children with SLI. Furthermore, in exploring the experiences of the sample in the National Curriculum Key Stage 2 tests the present study found that children with SLI perform poorly relative to national expectations of levels of achievement across all tests. At present there are no guidelines for supporting children with SLI in relation to National Curriculum tests and the present data suggests there is an obvious need for these to be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study compared the outcomes of two groups of children who were attending language unit provision at 7 years of age. Of 242 children in the original study, 62 (28%) transferred to mainstream school placements at age 8 years. These children were then closely matched to children still attending language unit provision at this age using measures of non-verbal IQ, expression and comprehension. These two groups of children were compared on outcome at 11 years in the areas of language skill, non-verbal IQ and social behaviour. Teacher/speech-language therapist opinions of placement were also examined as factors affecting outcome. Results show that children who moved to mainstream provision at 8 years were more likely to be attending mainstream at 11 years, although the majority received extra support. No further differences were evident in outcome according to placement type. However, there was a main effect of teacher/therapist opinion on outcome—children whose teachers were not entirely happy with the 8-year placement performed more poorly at 11 years on language measures. There were no differences on any other measures. The findings suggest that follow-on placements for children attending language units need to be more closely in line with teacher's opinions and that more flexibility needs to be evident in school placement policy in order that appropriate educational settings can be arranged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the development of grammatical categories (verb and noun) in young language learners. Specifically, children's ability to mark correctly the semantic roles of agent and patient was investigated. Second, children's productive use of the present tense progressive –ing, past tense –ed, third person singular –s and plural –s inflection was investigated. Twenty-eight children with specific language impairment (SLI) with a mean language age of 35 months and 28 children with normal language (NL) with a mean language age of 34 months were exposed to four novel verbs and four novel nouns during ten experimental child-directed play sessions. The lexical items were modelled with four experimentally controlled argument structures. Furthermore, both groups of children were administered structured tests of grammatical morphology (involving both verbs and nouns). First, children in both groups did not correctly mark semantic roles for agent and patient, unless specific semantic roles had already been modelled in the linguistic input by the experimenter. Second, children's productive use of grammatical morphology in their spontaneous utterances was better for nouns than verbs. Importantly, however, children with NL were significantly better at marking verbs for past tense than in children with SLI, although both groups performed poorly overall. These findings are discussed in relation to current theories of normal and impaired language development, in particular the usefulness of tense marking as a clinical marker of preschool children with SLI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-word repetition has previously been found to correlate with language outcomes both in children who are language impaired and in those who are developing normally. This paper concerns a group of children identified as having specific language impairment (SLI) and follows the methods of Adams and Gathercole (2000) by taking children with the highest and the lowest nonword repetition scores at age 11. These children's language and literacy abilities were then compared. Despite the fact that high and low scorers were matched on Performance IQ tasks (Block Design and Picture Completion), all linguistic measures except for vocabulary assessments showed significant differences between the groups. The fact that these differences were present despite block design scores being identical for the two groups suggests that more than a general working memory deficit underlies the language difficulties. Furthermore, significant differences were noted on a digit-span task requiring processing and production of number words. A specific phonological memory difficulty may therefore be present over and above a subtle but more general processing limitation. The implications for SLI theory and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A group of 117 children who met criteria for Specific Language Impairment (SLI) at 7 years of age were reassessed at 11 years of age. The data gathered from both stages were used to identify predictors of good and poor outcome from earlier test assessments. Results of logistic regressions indicated that measures of narrative retelling skills and expressive syntax were the strongest predictors of overall prognosis. This finding persisted when a nonverbal measure was included as a predictor alongside language measures in the regression model. There was found to be a lack of independent predictive contribution of early measures of articulation to later overall prognosis. Demographic factors (maternal education and family income) were not differently distributed across outcome groups. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study 160 children, aged 11 years with a definite history of specific language impairment (SLI), completed four tasks that could be potential positive psycholinguistic markers for this impairment: a third person singular task, a past tense task, a nonword repetition task, and a sentence repetition task. This allowed examination of more than one type of marker simultaneously, facilitating both comparisons between markers and also evaluation of combinations of markers in relation to identifying SLI. The study also provided data regarding the markers in relation to nonverbal IQ, made use of new normative data on all tasks, and examined marker accuracy in relation to current language status. The results show that markers vary in accuracy, with sentence repetition (a previously unused marker) proving to be the most useful. This psycholinguistic marker shows high levels of sensitivity (90%), specificity (85%), and overall accuracy (88%), as well as being able to identify the majority of children whose current language status falls in the normal range despite a history of SLI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is likely that tests of phonological short-term memory (non-word repetition) and grammatical morphology (past tense, third-person singular) are clinical markers for specific language impairment (SLI). The study provides normative data on three specific tests covering the aforementioned areas for 100 children attending the final year of primary schooling (10–11 year olds). Data from typically developing age controls can be used to provide a benchmark against which to compare the ability of language-impaired children. This is particularly important given that the transition from primary to secondary schooling is a key stage in a child's education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large cohort of 242 children who had been attending infants language units at 7 years of age was followed up when the children were in their final year of primary school. Two hundred (83%) of the children were reassessed at 11 years of age on a wide battery of language and literacy measures, on a test of nonverbal ability, an autism checklist and a communication checklist. In total, 89% of children still scored <1 SD from the mean on at least one test of language and the majority (63%) scored poorly on three or more assessments demonstrating widespread difficulties. Compared with non-verbal abilities at 7 years of age, a large proportion of the cohort also performed poorly on performance IQ subtests (28%). A further 10 children scored highly on a checklist for autistic spectrum disorder. Thus, only 115 (58%) children could be said to meet criteria for specific language impairment. A small group of 16 children appeared to have entirely resolved their difficulties. These outcomes and their implications for education and long-term impact of the disorder are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present investigation examined the characteristics of 7-year-old children attending language units in England. The study involved 242 participants who represented a randomized sample of all 7-year-old children spending 50% of more of the school week in a language unit. Results are discussed in terms of the following questions: what is the non-verbal ability of children attending language units?; do children attending language units fit the discrepancy criteria between verbal and non-verbal ability diagnostic of specific language impairment (SLI)?; and what types of language diffi culties do children with SLI attending language units have? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]