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The study of functional diversity (FD) provides ways to understand phenomena as complex as community assembly or the dynamics of biodiversity change under multiple pressures. Different frameworks are used to quantify FD, either based on dissimilarity matrices (e.g. Rao entropy, functional dendrograms) or multidimensional spaces (e.g. convex hulls, kernel‐density hypervolumes), each with their own strengths and limits. Frameworks based on dissimilarity matrices either do not enable the measurement of all components of FD (i.e. richness, divergence, and regularity), or result in the distortion of the functional space. Frameworks based on multidimensional spaces do not allow for comparisons with phylogenetic diversity (PD) measures and can be sensitive to outliers. We propose the use of neighbor‐joining trees (NJ) to represent and quantify FD in a way that combines the strengths of current frameworks without many of their weaknesses. Importantly, our approach is uniquely suited for studies that compare FD with PD, as both share the use of trees (NJ or others) and the same mathematical principles. We test the ability of this novel framework to represent the initial functional distances between species with minimal functional space distortion and sensitivity to outliers. The results using NJ are compared with conventional functional dendrograms, convex hulls, and kernel‐density hypervolumes using both simulated and empirical datasets. Using NJ, we demonstrate that it is possible to combine much of the flexibility provided by multidimensional spaces with the simplicity of tree‐based representations. Moreover, the method is directly comparable with taxonomic diversity (TD) and PD measures, and enables quantification of the richness, divergence and regularity of the functional space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stachytarpheta is mainly distributed in Brazil, where the knowledge of species richness is still in progress. Here, we describe S. meninii, a new micro‐endemic species from the Diamantina Plateau, Espinhaço Range. It is a shrub that can reach up to 1.8 meters in height, with abundant pedicellate glandular trichomes, viscous, aromatic leaves, inflorescences with oblong‐triangular bracts, and blue corollas, with a tube that is barely exserted from the calyx. The new species has been recorded from two gatherings from the same locality in the municipality of Serro, Minas Gerais state, and can be considered Critically Endangered (CR). Illustrations and a distribution map are provided for the recognition of S. meninii, along with an identification key for species of the genus found in Diamantina Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the Brazilian Stachytarpheta, the small group of species treated as the Stachytarpheta longispicata complex is morphologically recognised by its inflorescences with pedicellate flowers. This character is also present in S. longibracteata and S. rizzoi, two new species herein described based on the morphological species concept. Both species have a restricted distribution in the Cerrado domain, with S. longibracetata found in the Jalapão region (State of Tocantins) and S. rizzoi in the Serra Dourada region (State of Goiás). Detailed diagnosis, morphological comparisons, line drawings, ecological and taxonomic data, provisional conservation status, and a distribution map are provided for each new species. With these findings, we improve the taxonomy of the S. longispicata complex by increasing the number of known species to seven, and providing an identification key for this peculiar group with pedicellate flowers exclusive to the Cerrado. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, natural ecosystems have been replaced by intensive productive systems. This has led to an extreme simplification of habitat structure and loss of ecosystem heterogeneity but also might reduce the opportunities for species co‐occurrence.Anthropogenic disturbances offer an opportunity to explore how the functional diversity of spiders within a highly diverse ecosystem such as a subtropical forest change under intensive productive systems such as monoculture tree plantations. It allows to study the mechanisms underlying the community re‐assemblage process.Using a set of morphological and ecological traits of 259 species, the habitat filtering hypothesis was tested on spider communities inhabiting pine monocultures at different ages, where the stabilisation of habitat conditions such as vegetation complexity, maximum temperature/relative humidity and prey availability along the plantation cycle growth will promote spider colonisation of these productive areas.The conversion of native forest to pine monocultures decreased species and trait richness of spiders. Moreover, spiders from both communities differed in their identity but exhibited similar functional traits (low trait replacement). Variation in trait composition of spiders was explained by changes in vertical stratification complexity, tree density and relative humidity, rather than prey availability.The mechanistic processes structuring the spider community were not clear. Spiders from pine plantations might experience frequent changes in composition due to high species replacement levels in space and time. Because pine plantations harbour only a few species and exhibit low functional richness, the pressure for stabilisation of community composition can be low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that the conservation of subterranean ecosystems is finally gaining ground (Wynne et al., 2021), we believe it is of fundamental importance to tread lightly when considering interventions that directly affect the subterranean ecosystem (Mammola et al., 2022). However, ecosystem manipulation should follow strict guidelines to avoid unintended consequences to nontarget species (Simberloff & Stiling, 1996). Bats, climate change mitigation, conservation intervention, global warming, habitat manipulation, subterranean ecosystem Keywords: bats; climate change mitigation; conservation intervention; global warming; habitat manipulation; subterranean ecosystem EN bats climate change mitigation conservation intervention global warming habitat manipulation subterranean ecosystem 1 3 3 05/31/22 20220601 NES 220601 Global climate change is predicted to cause profound alterations in subterranean ecosystems in the next decades (Mammola, Piano, et al., 2019; Sánchez-Fernández et al., 2021). [Extracted from the article]

The last 3 years have seen a global outbreak of media headlines predicting a global insect apocalypse and a subsequent collapse of natural ecosystems, a so‐called 'ecological armageddon' resulting in the demise of human civilisation as we know it. Despite the worrying implications of these papers, all studies on global insect extinction to date clearly reflect the Prestonian shortfall, the general lack of knowledge on the abundance of species and their trends in space and time.Data currently available concerning global insect abundance trends invariably suffer from phylogenetic, functional, habitat, spatial and temporal bias. Here, we suggest that to follow the real global changes in insect (and all other taxa) communities, biases or shortcomings in data collection must be avoided.An optimised scheme would maximise phylogenetic, functional, habitat, spatial and temporal coverage with minimum investment. Standardised sampling would provide primary data, on a first step in the form of abundance and biomass. Individuals would then be identified to species level whenever possible, with a morphospecies approach or genetics serving as intermediate steps, complementing or even final steps for non‐described species.If standardised abundance and ecological data can be readily made available, biodiversity trends can be tracked in real time and allow us to predict and prevent an impending global insect apocalypse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current understanding of ecological and evolutionary processes underlying island biodiversity is heavily shaped by empirical data from plants and birds, although arthropods comprise the overwhelming majority of known animal species, and as such can provide key insights into processes governing biodiversity. Novel high throughput sequencing (HTS) approaches are now emerging as powerful tools to overcome limitations in the availability of arthropod biodiversity data, and hence provide insights into these processes. Here, we explored how these tools might be most effectively exploited for comprehensive and comparable inventory and monitoring of insular arthropod biodiversity. We first reviewed the strengths, limitations and potential synergies among existing approaches of high throughput barcode sequencing. We considered how this could be complemented with deep learning approaches applied to image analysis to study arthropod biodiversity. We then explored how these approaches could be implemented within the framework of an island Genomic Observatories Network (iGON) for the advancement of fundamental and applied understanding of island biodiversity. To this end, we identified seven island biology themes at the interface of ecology, evolution and conservation biology, within which collective and harmonized efforts in HTS arthropod inventory could yield significant advances in island biodiversity research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Land-use change typically goes hand in hand with the introduction of exotic species, which mingle with indigenous species to form novel assemblages. Here, we compare the functional structure of indigenous and exotic elements of ground-dwelling arthropod assemblages across four land-uses of varying management intensity. Location Terceira Island (Azores, North Atlantic). Methods We used pitfall traps to sample arthropods in 36 sites across the four land-uses and collated traits related to dispersal ability, body size and resource use. For both indigenous and exotic species, we examined the impact of land-uses on trait diversity and tested for the existence of non-random assembly processes using null models. We analysed differences in trait composition among land-uses for both indigenous and exotic species with multivariate analyses. We used point-biserial correlations to identity traits significantly correlated with specific land-uses for each element. Results We recorded 86 indigenous and 116 exotic arthropod species. Under high-intensity land-use, both indigenous and exotic elements showed significant trait clustering. Trait composition strongly shifted across land-uses, with indigenous and exotic species being functionally dissimilar in all land-uses. Large-bodied herbivores dominated exotic elements in low-intensity land-uses, while small-bodied spiders dominated exotic elements in high-intensity land-uses. In contrast, with increasing land-use intensity, indigenous species changed from functionally diverse to being dominated by piercing and cutting herbivores. Main conclusions Our study revealed two main findings: first, in high-intensity land-uses, trait clustering characterized both indigenous and exotic elements; second, exotic species differed in their functional profile from indigenous species in all land-use types. Overall, our results provide new insights into the functional role of exotic species in a land-use context, suggesting that, in agricultural landscape, exotic species may contribute positively to the maintenance of some ecosystem functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cirrhosis is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Portal hypertension is the major contributor of cirrhosis‐related complications and is defined as a hepatic venous pressure gradient (HVPG) > 5 mmHg. Measurement of HVPG is an invasive, difficult, and costly procedure. Therefore, it is only performed in specialized centers. Liver stiffness measured with transient elastography is one of the most studied noninvasive markers of portal hypertension, and spleen elastography has recently emerged as an important adjuvant tool. The development of a new probe (100 Hz) that more reliably reflect the grade of portal hypertension evaluated by spleen stiffness measurement has improved the accuracy of this technique. The aim of this work was to evaluate the accuracy of spleen stiffness with the new dedicated probe to predict the presence of high‐risk varices, as well as to determine the ideal cutoff to predict it. Methods: Prospective study of cirrhotic patients admitted to upper endoscopy that were also submitted to liver and spleen elastography with the 100‐Hz probe by the same blinded operator in a tertiary center. Results: We included 209 cirrhotic patients, with mean age of 61.9 years (±9.9), 77.0% male. The most common etiology was alcoholic liver disease (72.7%). The median value of liver elastography was 25.3 [4.5–75] kPa, and the median value of spleen elastography was 42.4 [7.6–100] kPa. At the cutoff of 53.25 kPa, we obtained sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 72.6% to predict high‐risk varices, and, according to this cutoff, 133/175 of esophagogastroduodenoscopy could have been spared (76.0%), while according to Baveno guidelines, only 51/175 would have been spared (29.1%). Conclusion: In the era of noninvasive exams, spleen elastography with the 100‐Hz probe emerges as an excellent tool for prediction of presence of high‐risk varices. At the cutoff of 53.25 kPa, spleen elastography avoids upper endoscopy for screening for high‐risk varices, promising to be become part of the hepatologists' daily routine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Functional MRI is valuable in presurgical planning due to its non-invasive nature, repeatability, and broad availability. Using ultra-high field MRI increases the specificity and sensitivity, increasing the localization reliability and reducing scan time. Ideally, fMRI analysis for this application should identify unreliable runs and work even if the patient deviates from the prescribed task timing or if there are changes to the hemodynamic response due to pathology. In this study, a model-free analysis method-UNBIASED-based on the consistency of fMRI responses over runs was applied, to ultra-high field fMRI localizations of the hand area. Ten patients with brain tumors and epilepsy underwent 7 Tesla fMRI with multiple runs of a hand motor task in a block design. FMRI data were analyzed with the proposed approach (UNBIASED) and the conventional General Linear Model (GLM) approach. UNBIASED correctly identified and excluded fMRI runs that contained little or no activation. Generally, less motion artifact contamination was present in UNBIASED than in GLM results. Some cortical regions were identified as activated in UNBIASED but not GLM results. These were confirmed to show reproducible delayed or transient activation, which was time-locked to the task. UNBIASED is a robust approach to generating activation maps without the need for assumptions about response timing or shape. In presurgical planning, UNBIASED can complement model-based methods to aid surgeons in making prudent choices about optimal surgical access and resection margins for each patient, even if the hemodynamic response is modified by pathology. Hum Brain Mapp 38:3163-3174, 2017. © 2017 The Authors Human Brain Mapping Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We present the first global biogeographical regionalization of estuaries, assessing how dispersal limitation and/or environmental filtering mechanisms drive the patterns of fish assemblage composition among and within biogeographical regions. Location Estuaries worldwide. Methods A bootstrapped hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to define biogeographical regions based on pairwise beta diversity (βsim) of fish assemblages among 393 estuaries worldwide. Variables representing dispersal limitation and environmental features were used to disentangle the possible effects of assembly processes acting among and within biogeographical regions, through hierarchical partitioning of variation. Finally, we assessed the contribution of species to beta diversity through a method newly developed in this article. Results Estuaries were grouped into seven major biogeographical regions explained by geographical dispersal variables. Dissimilarity in species composition within each biogeographical region was mainly determined by ecosystem-connectivity dispersal variables, with a minor influence of environmental variables (chiefly sea surface temperature). Marine species contributed highly to beta diversity between estuaries but less than expected by chance, whilst freshwater species had low contributions yet also less than expected. Estuarine (i.e. brackish) and diadromous species had low contributions to beta diversity but higher than expected by chance. Main conclusions Fish assemblage composition in estuaries seems to be driven by dispersal limitation processes both among and within biogeographical regions, with only a minor role of environmental filtering evident within biogeographical regions. These findings contrast with the acknowledged importance of environmental variables as drivers of species richness patterns. Irrespective of biogeographical region, the ecosystem affinity of a species determined its contribution to beta diversity between estuaries. The new method presented here offers new opportunities for assessing the effects of taxonomic and functional aspects on beta diversity (βsim) across taxa and ecosystems, and thus contributes to improving knowledge of assembly processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Finnish Red Lists from 2000 and 2010 were used to calculate for the first time the national Red List Index for the order Lepidoptera and different Lepidoptera families with data from 2245 species., We grouped species according to their primary habitats and analysed each habitat's RLI as well., The overall RLI was significantly negative, reflecting the worsening of the group as a whole in the country., A significant negative trend was found for families Tortricidae, Gelechiidae and Hesperiidae and for coastal habitats., We also report that 76 Lepidoptera species newly established a population in Finland between 2000 and 2010, probably expanding northwards driven by climate warming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key challenge in island biogeography is to quantity the role of dispersal in shaping biodiversity patterns among the islands of a given archipelago. Here, we propose such a framework. Dispersal within oceanic archipelagos may be conceptualized as a spatio-temporal process dependent on: (1) the spatial distribution of islands, because the probability of successful dispersal is inversely related to the spatial distance between islands and (2) the chronological sequence of island formation that determines the directional asymmetry of dispersal (hypothesized to be predominantly from older to younger islands). From these premises, directional network models may be constructed, representing putative connections among islands. These models may be translated to eigenfunctions in order to be incorporated into statistical analysis. The framework was tested with 12 datasets from the Hawaii, Azores, and Canaries. The explanatory power of directional network models for explaining species composition patterns, assessed by the Jaccard dissimilarity index, was compared with simpler time-isolation models. The amount of variation explained by the network models ranged from 5.5% (for Coleoptera in Hawaii) to 60.2% (for Pteridophytes in Canary Islands). In relation to the four studied taxa, the variation explained by network models was higher for Pteridophytes in the three archipelagos. By the contrary, small fractions of explained variation were observed for Coleoptera (5.5%) and Araneae (8.6%) in Hawaii. Time-isolation models were, in general, not statistical significant and explained less variation than the equivalent directional network models for all the datasets. Directional network models provide a way for evaluating the spatio-temporal signature of species dispersal. The method allows building scenarios against which hypotheses about dispersal within archipelagos may be tested. The new framework may help to uncover the pathways via which species have colonized the islands of a given archipelago and to understand the origins of insular biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Our aim was to determine the relative contribution of species replacement and richness differences to overall beta diversity in Macaronesian spiders, the influence of several biogeographical drivers in shaping such dissimilarity patterns, and how these change according to the dispersal ability of spiders. Location Four Macaronesian archipelagos: the Azores, Madeira, Selvagens and the Canary Islands. Methods Each spider species was assigned to a group relative to its ballooning propensity (frequent, occasional or rare), used as a surrogate of dispersal ability, based on its family membership. Beta diversity was decomposed for each group, by disentangling all compositional differences (overall beta diversity, βtotal) into two components, species replacement (βrepl) and species richness differences (βrich). The effects of island area, environmental heterogeneity, geological age, distance to mainland and inter-island distances on βrepl and βrich were tested by partial Mantel tests and hierarchical partitioning of variation for each mobility group. Results The archipelagos studied had similar intra-archipelagic richness differences, but species replacement was lower within the Azores for the three groups of spiders. The variation in community composition among the archipelagos was determined by species replacement for frequently ballooning spiders, while richness differences dominated for less mobile spiders. Island area was more important for species with higher mobility, while less mobile species were mostly affected by the distance to mainland and inter-island distances. Environmental heterogeneity had an effect, mostly on richness differences, across the three spider groups. Time had only a weak effect on species replacement for less mobile species. Main conclusions The partition of βtotal into βrepl and βrich identified different causes of beta-diversity patterns as driven by the dispersal ability of spiders. Dispersal-limited species responded more strongly to isolation than more mobile species. In contrast, the latter were influenced more by island area. Thus our findings emphasize the importance of interspecific traits and dispersal limitation for structuring species assemblages on islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To propose a unified framework for quantifying taxon ( Tβ), phylogenetic ( Pβ) and functional ( Fβ) beta diversity via pairwise comparisons of communities, which allows these types of beta diversity to be partitioned into ecologically meaningful additive components. Location Global, with case studies in Europe and the Azores archipelago. Methods Using trees as a common representation for taxon, phylogenetic and functional diversity, we partition total beta diversity (βtotal) into its replacement (turnover, βrepl) and richness difference (βrich) components according to which part of a global tree was shared by or unique to communities that were being compared. We demonstrate the application of this framework using artificial and empirical examples (mammals in Europe and epigean arthropods in the Azores). Results Our empirical examples show that comparing Pβ and Fβ with the most commonly used Tβ revealed previously hidden patterns of beta diversity. More importantly, we demonstrate that partitioning Pβtotal and Fβtotal into their respective βrepl and βrich components facilitates the detection of more complex patterns than using the overall coefficients alone, further elucidating the different forces operating in community assembly. Main conclusions The methods presented here allow the integration and full comparison of Tβ, Pβ and Fβ. They provide a tool for effectively disentangling the replacement (turnover) and richness difference components of the different biodiversity facets within the same methodological framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Human landscape disturbance can drive the degradation of natural environments, thereby contributing to indigenous (endemic and native non-endemic) species extinctions, facilitating the establishment of exotic species and ultimately resulting in more similar species compositions over time and space. We assessed whether similarities in epigean arthropod assemblages differ between indigenous and exotic species in an oceanic archipelago, and we also examined whether such assemblage similarities depend on the most dominant species, the island, the type of habitat, the degree of landscape disturbance or local environmental variables. Location Four oceanic islands in the Azores archipelago, Portugal. Methods We examined the degree of assemblage similarity and the effect of environmental variables and spatial disturbance to explain the epigean arthropod distributions for indigenous and exotic species. Results Exotic species increased overall assemblage similarity. Distinct arthropod assemblages occurred on the different islands and in the different habitats. Assemblage differences between the habitats depended on the island. This pattern was largely explained by the abundance patterns of the most abundant indigenous and exotic species (ten indigenous and ten exotic species accounted for 75% of total individuals). In comparison with the high explanatory capacity of the habitats and islands per se, local environmental variables and disturbance hardly explained the assemblage composition in both groups of species. Main conclusions We demonstrate that exotic species promote assemblage homogenization on these oceanic islands, and that such process is contingent and independent between islands and habitats. General habitat characteristics seemed to be the main driver of assemblage structure, independently of the different climatic conditions or disturbance levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Beta diversity and nestedness are central concepts of ecology and biogeography and evaluation of their relationships is in the focus of contemporary ecological and conservation research. Beta diversity patterns are originated from two distinct processes: the replacement (or turnover) of species and the loss (or gain) of species leading to richness differences. Nested distributional patterns are generally thought to have a component deriving from beta diversity which is independent of replacement processes. Quantification of these phenomena is often made by calculating a measure of beta diversity, and the resulting value being subsequently partitioned into a contribution by species replacement plus a fraction shared by beta diversity and nestedness. Three methods have been recently proposed for such partitioning, all of them based on pairwise comparisons of sites. In this paper, the performance of these methods was evaluated on theoretical grounds and tested by a simulation study in which different gradients of dissimilarity, with known degrees of species replacement and species loss, were created. Performance was also tested using empirical data addressing land-use induced changes in endemic arthropod communities of the Terceira Island in the Azores. We found that the partitioning of βcc (dissimilarity in terms of the Jaccard index) into two additive fractions, β-3 (dissimilarity due to species replacement) plus βrich (dissimilarity due to richness differences) reflects the species replacement and species loss processes across the simulated gradients in an ecologically and mathematically meaningful way, whilst the other two methods lack mathematical consistency and prove conceptually self-contradictory. Moreover, the first method identified a selective local extinction process for endemic arthropods, triggered by land-use changes, while the latter two methods overweighted the replacement component and led to false conclusions. Their basic flaw derives from the fact that the proposed replacement and nestedness components (deemed to account for species loss) are not scaled in the same way as the measure that accounts for the total dissimilarity (Sørensen and Jaccard indices). We therefore recommend the use of βcc=β-3+βrich, since its components are scaled in the same units and their responses are proportional to the replacement and the gain/loss of species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widespread use of species traits in basic and applied ecology, conservation and biogeography has led to an exponential increase in functional diversity analyses, with > 10 000 papers published in 2010–2020, and > 1800 papers only in 2021. This interest is reflected in the development of a multitude of theoretical and methodological frameworks for calculating functional diversity, making it challenging to navigate the myriads of options and to report detailed accounts of trait‐based analyses. Therefore, the discipline of trait‐based ecology would benefit from the existence of a general guideline for standard reporting and good practices for analyses. We devise an eight‐step protocol to guide researchers in conducting and reporting functional diversity analyses, with the overarching goal of increasing reproducibility, transparency and comparability across studies. The protocol is based on: 1) identification of a research question; 2) a sampling scheme and a study design; 3–4) assemblage of data matrices; 5) data exploration and preprocessing; 6) functional diversity computation; 7) model fitting, evaluation and interpretation; and 8) data, metadata and code provision. Throughout the protocol, we provide information on how to best select research questions, study designs, trait data, compute functional diversity, interpret results and discuss ways to ensure reproducibility in reporting results. To facilitate the implementation of this template, we further develop an interactive web‐based application (stepFD) in the form of a checklist workflow, detailing all the steps of the protocol and allowing the user to produce a final 'reproducibility report' to upload alongside the published paper. A thorough and transparent reporting of functional diversity analyses ensures that ecologists can incorporate others' findings into meta‐analyses, the shared data can be integrated into larger databases for consensus analyses, and available code can be reused by other researchers. All these elements are key to pushing forward this vibrant and fast‐growing field of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The world's islands support disproportionate levels of endemic avian biodiversity despite suffering numerous extinctions. While intensive recent research has focused on island bird conservation or extinction, few global syntheses have considered these factors together from the perspective of morphological trait diversity. Here, we provide a global summary of the status and ecology of extant and extinct island birds, the threats they face and the implications of species loss for island functional diversity. Location: Global. Taxon: Birds. Methods: We provide a review of the literature on threatened and extinct island birds, with a particular focus on global studies that have incorporated functional diversity. Alongside this, we analyse IUCN Red List data in relation to distribution, threats and taxonomy. Using null models and functional hypervolumes, in combination with morphological trait data, we assess the functional diversity represented by threatened and extinct island endemic birds. Results and main conclusions: We find that almost half of all island endemic birds extant in 1500 CE are currently either extinct or threatened with extinction, with the majority of threatened extant species having declining population trends. We also found evidence of 66 island endemic subspecies extinctions. The primary threats to extant island endemic birds currently are agriculture, biological resource use, and invasive species. While there is overlap between the hotspots of threatened and extinct island endemics birds, there are some notable differences, including the Philippines and Indonesia, which support a substantial number of threatened species but have no recorded post‐1500 CE bird extinctions. Traits associated with threatened island endemic birds are large body mass, flightlessness, aquatic predator, omnivorous and vertivorous trophic niches, marine habitat affinity, and, paradoxically, higher dispersal ability. Critically, we find that threatened endemics (i) occupy distinct areas of beak morphospace, and (ii) represent substantial unique areas of the overall functional space of island endemics. We caution that the loss of threatened species may have severe effects on the ecological functions birds provide on islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim To determine the relative contribution of species replacement and species richness differences to the emergence of beta-diversity patterns. Innovation A novel method that disentangles all compositional differences (βcc, overall beta diversity) in its two components, species replacement (β-3) and species richness differences (βrich) is proposed. The performance of the method was studied with ternary plots, which allow visualization of the influence of the relative proportions of shared and unique species of two sites over each metric. The method was also tested in different hypothetical gradients and with real datasets. The novel method was compared with a previous proposal based on the partitioning of overall compositional differences (βsor) in replacement (βsim) and nestedness (βnes). The linear response of βcc contrasts with the curvilinear response of βsor to linear gradients of dissimilarity. When two sites did not share any species, βsim was always 1 and β-3 only reached 1 when the number of exclusive species of both sites was equal. β-3 remained constant along gradients of richness differences with constant replacement, while βsim decreased. βrich had a linear response to a linear gradient of richness differences with constant species replacement, whereas βnes exhibited a hump-shaped response. Moreover, βsim > βnes when clearly almost all species of one site were lost, whereas β-3 < βrich in the same circumstances. Main conclusions The behaviour of the partition of βcc into β-3 and βrich is consistent with the variation of replacement and richness differences. The partitioning of βsor into βsim and βnes overestimates the replacement component and underestimates richness differences. The novel methodology allows the discrimination of different causes of beta-diversity patterns along latitudinal, biogeographic or ecological gradients, by estimating correctly the relative contributions of replacement and richness differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

. 1. The European Habitats Directive is the main legislative work regarding Europe's nature conservation policy. It lists the protected habitats and species in the European Union. The species lists include 122 arthropods. 2. The current lists of arthropods (Annexes II and IV) present, possibly among other, five obvious biases: taxonomic, geographic, range, size and aesthetic biases. Species of selected taxa (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Odonata and Orthoptera), from Northern or Central Europe, relatively widespread, of a large body size and attractive are favoured over species of other taxa, from southern and Mediterranean Europe, endemic or relatively small or inconspicuous. Such biases are obstacles to the effective protection of the European fauna. 3. Two main strategies should be followed to avoid these problems and therefore increase the effectiveness of conservation policies: (i) the adoption of objective and transparent criteria for the listing of protected species, and (ii) implement regular updates and amendments to the lists based on such criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

. 1. The Iberian Peninsula is one of the most relevant areas in terms of species richness, rarity and endemism in the Mediterranean Basin. Using spiders as a model, we studied the relative importance of environmental and non-environmental spatial variation along a gradient of mediterraneity on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula. 2. We performed a spatially explicit analysis to evaluate the contribution of pure environmental and pure spatial effects and their shared influence on spider species richness by variation partitioning and principal coordinates of neighbour matrices (PCNM). We dissect the spatial variation of species richness into additive scale-specific models through PCNM analysis and estimate the relative importance of environmental variables for each model. 3. Variation partitioning revealed that 72.8% of species richness variation could be explained by the environmental (climate and dune stability) and spatial variables. Most of this variation (51.3%) corresponds to the environmental spatially structured component. 4. The influence of environmental variables was scale-dependent. At the broadest scales, the latitudinal-climatic gradient was the dominant factor that influenced spider species richness variation. At the finest scale, stability of the dune system was the most important component. 5. In conclusion, spider species richness patterns were determined mostly by spatially structured environmental variation. More importantly, this study shows that different environmental factors act at multiple scales. Hence, our results reinforce the importance of the incorporation of both local and broad-scale factors when examining species richness patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediterranean Basin is recognized for its high levels of species richness, rarity and endemicity. Our main aim was to evaluate the relative effects of environmental and spatial variables and their scale-specific importance on beta diversity patterns along a gradient of mediterraneity, using spiders as a model group. This study was carried out in 18 coastal dune sites along the Portuguese Atlantic coast. This area encompasses 445 km and comprises two distinct biogeographic regions, Eurosiberian (northern coast) and Mediterranean (centre and south). A forward selection procedure was carried out to select environmental and spatial variables responsible for determining beta diversity patterns. Variation partitioning and principal coordinates of neighbour matrices (PCNM) were used to estimate the contribution of pure environmental and pure spatial effects and their shared influence on beta diversity patterns and to estimate the relative importance of environmental structured variation and pure spatial variation at multiple spatial scales. Climate, ground vegetation dune cover and area were selected by a forward selection procedure. The same procedure identified three PCNM variables, all corresponding to large and medium spatial scales. Variation partitioning revealed that 46.1% of the variation of beta diversity patterns was explained by a combination of environmental and PCNM variables. Most of this variation (42.5%) corresponded to spatial variation (environmental spatially structured and pure spatial). Climate and vegetation structure influences were predominant at the PCNM1 and PCNM3 scales, while area was more important at the intermediate PCNM2 scale. Our study revealed that beta diversity of spiders was primarily controlled by a broad-scale gradient of mediterraneity. The relative importance of environmental variables on the spider assemblage composition varied with spatial scale. This study highlights the need of considering the scale-specific influence of niche and neutral processes on beta diversity patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim To identify the biogeographical factors underlying spider species richness in the Macaronesian region and assess the importance of species extinctions in shaping the current diversity. Location The European archipelagos of Macaronesia with an emphasis on the Azores and Canary Islands. Methods Seven variables were tested as predictors of single-island endemics (SIE), archipelago endemics and indigenous spider species richness in the Azores, Canary Islands and Macaronesia as a whole: island area; geological age; maximum elevation; distance from mainland; distance from the closest island; distance from an older island; and natural forest area remaining per island – a measure of deforestation (the latter only in the Azores). Different mathematical formulations of the general dynamic model of oceanic island biogeography (GDM) were also tested. Results Island area and the proportion of remaining natural forest were the best predictors of species richness in the Azores. In the Canary Islands, area alone did not explain the richness of spiders. However, a hump-shaped relationship between richness and time was apparent in these islands. The island richness in Macaronesia was correlated with island area, geological age, maximum elevation and distance to mainland. Main conclusions In Macaronesia as a whole, area, island age, the large distance that separates the Azores from the mainland, and the recent disappearance of native habitats with subsequent unrecorded extinctions seem to be the most probable explanations for the current observed richness. In the Canary Islands, the GDM model is strongly supported by many genera that radiated early, reached a peak at intermediate island ages, and have gone extinct on older, eroded islands. In the Azores, the unrecorded extinctions of many species in the oldest, most disturbed islands seem to be one of the main drivers of the current richness patterns. Spiders, the most important terrestrial predators on these islands, may be acting as early indicators for the future disappearance of other insular taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Researchers measuring beta diversity have rarely concerned themselves with the problems of how complete the species lists of studied communities are, and of how the varying degrees of completeness can actually change estimates of beta diversity. No comprehensive assessment has been made regarding the behaviour of most beta diversity indices when applied to incomplete samples, a situation which is more common than usually recognized. Our objective was to assess the behaviour and robustness of a number of beta diversity measures for incidence data from undersampled communities. Location Mainland Portugal and the Azorean archipelago (North Atlantic). Methods Data from intensive sampling of spiders in mainland Portugal and arthropods in Azores were collected. We examined the properties of 15 beta diversity measures developed for incidence data. We simulated varying degrees of completeness, whereas computing beta diversity for selected pairs of samples. The robustness of these beta diversity accumulation curves was assessed for the purpose of finding the best measures for undersampled communities. Results The Harrison et al.β-2 and the Williams β-3 are particularly robust to undersampling. These measures are also insensitive to differences of alpha diversity (species richness) between communities, and therefore to nestedness. Colwell & Coddington βcc and the related Jaccard βj and Gaston et al.βg performed best of the measures sensitive to alpha diversity. They performed poorly, however, when compared communities exhibited very low values of beta diversity. In such cases, the Routledge βr performed the best. Main conclusions No index was found to perform without bias in all circumstances. Overall, β-2, β-3 and βcc (or related measures βj and βg) are recommended as they seem to be the most robust to undersampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. A thorough inventory of a Mediterranean oak forest spider fauna carried out during 2 weeks is presented. It used a semi-quantitative sampling protocol to collect comparable data in a rigorous, rapid and efficient way. Four hundred and eighty samples of one person-hour of work each were collected, mostly inside a delimited 1-ha plot. 2. Sampling yielded 10 808 adult spiders representing 204 species. The number of species present at the site was estimated using five different richness estimators (Chao1, Chao2, Jackknife1, Jackknife2 and Michaelis–Menten). The estimates ranged from 232 to 260. The most reliable estimates were provided by the Chao estimators and the least reliable was obtained with the Michaelis–Menten. However, the behavior of the Michaelis–Menten accumulation curves supports the use of this estimator as a stopping or reliability rule. 3. Nineteen per cent of the species were represented by a single specimen (singletons) and 12% by just two specimens (doubletons). The presence of locally rare species in this exhaustive inventory is discussed. 4. The effects of day, time of day, collector experience and sampling method on the number of adults, number of species and taxonomic composition of the samples are assessed. Sampling method is the single most important factor influencing the results and all methods generate unique species. Time of day is also important, in such way that each combination of method and time of day may be considered as a different method in itself. There are insignificant differences between the collectors in terms of species and number of adult spiders collected. Despite the high collecting effort, the species richness and abundance of spiders remained constant throughout the sampling period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Fields such as ecology, macroecology, and conservation biology rely on accurate and comparable data. This is especially important for mostly unknown and megadiverse taxa such as spiders and regions such as the Mediterranean. Short-term sampling programmes are increasingly seen as the best option for sampling spiders. Comparability of results, however, demands standard procedures both in methodology and in sampling period. Cost-efficiency dictates that this period should be the most species rich. 2. Pitfall trapping was conducted in 23 sites from north to south Portugal, comprising three large-scale environmental zones and many different habitat types, during 10 months in each site. The annual richness pattern, differences in this pattern between areas and habitats, the complementarity between sampling periods and possible environmental correlates of richness were studied. 3. May and June present the optimal time for collecting spiders in Mediterranean areas. Northern areas have a later peak in richness and dense tree-cover sites offer more flexibility for sampling, with a higher proportion of species present at each period throughout the year. 4. Day length is the environmental factor most correlated with species richness. Maximum daily temperature may reduce richness, especially in southernmost areas, where summer temperatures can be extremely harsh. 5. It is recommended that short-term sampling programmes, intended to give a reasonable picture of spider communities in Portugal and in the Iberian Peninsula (and possibly extending to all the Mediterranean), should be conducted during May or June, with variable flexibility according to area and habitat. The proposed suggestions should appeal to everyone working in the field, given the cost-efficiency and comparability of results by adopting a common standardised approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Quantifying the relative contribution of environmental filtering versus limiting similarity in shaping communities is challenging because these processes often act simultaneously and their effect is scale‐dependent. Focusing on caves, island‐like natural laboratories with limited environmental variability and species diversity, we tested: (i) the relative contribution of environmental filtering and limiting similarity in determining community assembly in caves; (ii) how the relative contribution of these driving forces changes along environmental gradients. Location: Europe. Time period: Present. Major taxa studied: Subterranean spiders. Methods: We used data on distribution and traits for European cave spiders (n = 475 communities). We estimated the trait space of each community using probabilistic hypervolumes, and obtained estimations of functional richness independent of the species richness of each community via null modelling. We model functional diversity change along environmental gradients using generalized dissimilarity modelling. Results: Sixty‐three percent of subterranean spider communities exhibited a prevalence of trait underdispersion. However, most communities displayed trait dispersion that did not depart significantly from random, suggesting that environmental filtering and limiting similarity were both exerting equally weak or strong, yet opposing influences. Overdispersed communities were primarily concentrated in southern latitudes, particularly in the Dinaric karst, where there is greater subterranean habitat availability. Pairwise comparisons of functional richness across caves revealed these effects to be strongly scale‐dependent, largely varying across gradients of cave development, elevation, precipitation, entrance size and annual temperature range. Conversely, geographical distance weakly affected trait composition, suggesting convergence in traits among communities that are far apart. Main conclusions: Even systems with stringent environmental conditions maintain the potential for trait differentiation, especially in areas of greater habitat availability. Yet, the relative influence of environmental filtering and limiting similarity change with scale, along clear environmental gradients. The interplay of these processes may explain the assembly of species‐poor subterranean communities displaying high functional specialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antarctica terrestrial ecosystems are facing the most threats from global climate change, which is altering plant composition greatly. These transformations may cause major reshuffling of soil community composition, including functional traits and diversity, and therefore affect ecosystem processes in Antarctica. We used high‐throughput sequencing analysis to investigate soil nematodes under 3 dominant plant functional groups (lichens, mosses, and vascular plants) and bare ground in the Antarctic region. We calculated functional diversity of nematodes based on their diet, life histories, and body mass with kernel density n‐dimensional hypervolumes. We also calculated taxonomic and functional beta diversity of the nematode communities based on Jaccard dissimilarity. The presence of plants had no significant effect on the taxonomic richness of nematodes but significantly increased nematode functional richness. The presence of plants also significantly decreased taxonomic beta diversity (homogenization). Only mosses and vascular plants decreased nematode functional beta diversity, which was mostly due to a decreased effect of the richness difference component. The presence of plants also increased the effect of deterministic processes potentially because environmental filtering created conditions favorable to nematodes at low trophic levels with short life histories and small body size. Increasing plant cover in the Antarctic due to climate change may lead to increased diversity of nematode species that can use the scarce resources and nematode taxonomic and functional homogenization. In a future under climate change, community restructuring in the region is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Transfusion‐transmitted malaria (TTM) is a public health problem in endemic and nonendemic areas. The Brazilian Ministry of Health (MH) requested the development of a nucleic acid amplification test (NAT) for the detection of Plasmodium spp. in public blood centers to increase blood safety. Study Design and Methods: The new Brazilian NAT kit named NAT PLUS HIV/HBV/HCV/Malaria Bio‐Manguinhos was first implemented in HEMORIO, a public blood center in the city of Rio de Janeiro. Since October 1, 2022, this blood center has been testing all its blood donations for malaria in a pool of six plasma samples to detect Plasmodium spp. by real‐time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: Since the implementation of the NAT PLUS platform until February 2023, HEMORIO has successfully received and tested 200,277 donations. The platform detected two asymptomatic donors in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which is a nonendemic region for malaria. Our analyses suggested a malaria from the Amazon region caused by Plasmodium vivax, in the first case, while an autochthonous transmission case by Plasmodium malariae was identified in the rural area of Rio de Janeiro state. Discussion: The NAT PLUS platform detects Plasmodium spp. in plasma samples with sensitivity capable of detecting subpatent infections. This is the first time worldwide that a group developed and implemented molecular diagnosis for Plasmodium spp. to be used by public blood centers to avoid TTM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bats frequently inhabit caves and other subterranean habitats and play a critical role in subterranean food webs. With escalating threats to subterranean ecosystems, identifying the most effective measures to protect subterranean‐roosting bats is critical. We conducted a meta‐analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of conservation and management interventions for subterranean‐roosting bats. We used network analyses to determine to what extent interventions for bats overlap those used for other subterranean taxa. We conducted our analyses with data extracted from 345 papers recommending a total of 910 conservation interventions. Gating of roost entrances was applied to preserve bat populations in 21 studies, but its effectiveness was unclear. Habitat restoration and disturbance reduction positively affected bat populations and bat behavior, respectively, in ≤4 studies. Decontamination was assessed in 2 studies and positively affected bat populations, particularly in studies focused on reducing fungal spores associated with white‐nose syndrome in North America. Monitoring of bat populations as an effective conservation strategy was unclear and infrequently tested. Only 4% of bat studies simultaneously considered other subterranean organisms. However, effective interventions for bat conservation had similarities with all other organisms. If other subterranean organisms are considered when applying interventions to conserve bats, they might also benefit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparative extinction risk analysis—which predicts species extinction risk from correlation with traits or geographical characteristics—has gained research attention as a promising tool to support extinction risk assessment in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, its uptake has been very limited so far, possibly because existing models only predict a species' Red List category, without indicating which Red List criteria may be triggered. This prevents such approaches to be integrated into Red List assessments. We overcome this implementation gap by developing models that predict the probability of species meeting individual Red List criteria. Using data on the world's birds, we evaluated the predictive performance of our criterion‐specific models and compared it with the typical criterion‐blind modelling approach. We compiled data on biological traits (e.g. range size, clutch size) and external drivers (e.g. change in canopy cover) often associated with extinction risk. For each specific criterion, we modelled the relationship between extinction risk predictors and species' Red List category under that criterion using ordinal regression models. We found criterion‐specific models were better at identifying threatened species compared to a criterion‐blind model (higher sensitivity), but less good at identifying not threatened species (lower specificity). As expected, different covariates were important for predicting extinction risk under different criteria. Change in annual temperature was important for criteria related to population trends, while high forest dependency was important for criteria related to restricted area of occupancy or small population size. Our criteria‐specific method can support Red List assessors by producing outputs that identify species likely to meet specific criteria, and which are the most important predictors. These species can then be prioritised for re‐evaluation. We expect this new approach to increase the uptake of extinction risk models in Red List assessments, bridging a long‐standing research‐implementation gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite being central to the implementation of conservation policies, the usefulness of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is hampered by the 14% of species classified as data‐deficient (DD) because information to evaluate these species' extinction risk was lacking when they were last assessed or because assessors did not appropriately account for uncertainty. Robust methods are needed to identify which DD species are more likely to be reclassified in one of the data‐sufficient IUCN Red List categories. We devised a reproducible method to help red‐list assessors prioritize reassessment of DD species and tested it with 6887 DD species of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, and Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies). For each DD species in these groups, we calculated its probability of being classified in a data‐sufficient category if reassessed today from covariates measuring available knowledge (e.g., number of occurrence records or published articles available), knowledge proxies (e.g., remoteness of the range), and species characteristics (e.g., nocturnality); calculated change in such probability since last assessment from the increase in available knowledge (e.g., new occurrence records); and determined whether the species might qualify as threatened based on recent rate of habitat loss determined from global land‐cover maps. We identified 1907 species with a probability of being reassessed in a data‐sufficient category of >0.5; 624 species for which this probability increased by >0.25 since last assessment; and 77 species that could be reassessed as near threatened or threatened based on habitat loss. Combining these 3 elements, our results provided a list of species likely to be data‐sufficient such that the comprehensiveness and representativeness of the IUCN Red List can be improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on island species–area relationships (ISAR) has expanded to incorporate functional (IFDAR) and phylogenetic (IPDAR) diversity. However, relative to the ISAR, we know little about IFDARs and IPDARs, and lack synthetic global analyses of variation in form of these three categories of island diversity–area relationship (IDAR). Here, we undertake the first comparative evaluation of IDARs at the global scale using 51 avian archipelagic data sets representing true and habitat islands. Using null models, we explore how richness‐corrected functional and phylogenetic diversity scale with island area. We also provide the largest global assessment of the impacts of species introductions and extinctions on the IDAR. Results show that increasing richness with area is the primary driver of the (non‐richness corrected) IPDAR and IFDAR for many data sets. However, for several archipelagos, richness‐corrected functional and phylogenetic diversity changes linearly with island area, suggesting that the dominant community assembly processes shift along the island area gradient. We also find that archipelagos with the steepest ISARs exhibit the biggest differences in slope between IDARs, indicating increased functional and phylogenetic redundancy on larger islands in these archipelagos. In several cases introduced species seem to have 're‐calibrated' the IDARs such that they resemble the historic period prior to recent extinctions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of the sources of noise affecting blood oxygen level‐dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), respiration and cardiac fluctuations are responsible for the largest part of the variance, particularly at high and ultrahigh field. Existing approaches to removing physiological noise either use external recordings, which can be unwieldy and unreliable, or attempt to identify physiological noise from the magnitude fMRI data. Data‐driven approaches are limited by sensitivity, temporal aliasing, and the need for user interaction. In the light of the sensitivity of the phase of the MR signal to local changes in the field stemming from physiological processes, we have developed an unsupervised physiological noise correction method using the information carried in the phase and the magnitude of echo‐planar imaging data. Our technique, Physiological Regressor Estimation from Phase and mAgnItude, sub‐tR (PREPAIR) derives time series signals sampled at the slice TR from both phase and magnitude images. It allows physiological noise to be captured without aliasing, and efficiently removes other sources of signal fluctuations not related to physiology, prior to regressor estimation. We demonstrate that the physiological signal time courses identified with PREPAIR agree well with those from external devices and retrieve challenging cardiac dynamics. The removal of physiological noise was as effective as that achieved with the most used approach based on external recordings, RETROICOR. In comparison with widely used recording‐free physiological noise correction tools—PESTICA and FIX, both performed in unsupervised mode—PREPAIR removed significantly more respiratory and cardiac noise than PESTICA, and achieved a larger increase in temporal signal‐to‐noise‐ratio at both 3 and 7 T. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) provide services that are critical to food production, and they fulfill an ecological role as a food source for predators. The richness, abundance, and distribution of ladybirds, however, are compromised by many anthropogenic threats. Meanwhile, a lack of knowledge of the conservation status of most species and the factors driving their population dynamics hinders the development and implementation of conservation strategies for ladybirds. We conducted a review of the literature on the ecology, diversity, and conservation of ladybirds to identify their key ecological threats. Ladybird populations are most affected by climate factors, landscape composition, and biological invasions. We suggest mitigating actions for ladybird conservation and recovery. Short‐term actions include citizen science programs and education, protective measures for habitat recovery and threatened species, prevention of the introduction of non‐native species, and the maintenance and restoration of natural areas and landscape heterogeneity. Mid‐term actions involve the analysis of data from monitoring programs and insect collections to disentangle the effect of different threats to ladybird populations, understand habitat use by taxa on which there is limited knowledge, and quantify temporal trends of abundance, diversity, and biomass along a management‐intensity gradient. Long‐term actions include the development of a worldwide monitoring program based on standardized sampling to fill data gaps, increase explanatory power, streamline analyses, and facilitate global collaborations. Article impact statement: In light of major ecological threats, mitigating actions at different timescales are crucial for ladybird conservation and recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate warming is considered to be among the most serious of anthropogenic stresses to the environment, because it not only has direct effects on biodiversity, but it also exacerbates the harmful effects of other human‐mediated threats. The associated consequences are potentially severe, particularly in terms of threats to species preservation, as well as in the preservation of an array of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity. Among the most affected groups of animals are insects—central components of many ecosystems—for which climate change has pervasive effects from individuals to communities. In this contribution to the scientists' warning series, we summarize the effect of the gradual global surface temperature increase on insects, in terms of physiology, behavior, phenology, distribution, and species interactions, as well as the effect of increased frequency and duration of extreme events such as hot and cold spells, fires, droughts, and floods on these parameters. We warn that, if no action is taken to better understand and reduce the action of climate change on insects, we will drastically reduce our ability to build a sustainable future based on healthy, functional ecosystems. We discuss perspectives on relevant ways to conserve insects in the face of climate change, and we offer several key recommendations on management approaches that can be adopted, on policies that should be pursued, and on the involvement of the general public in the protection effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Red List Index (RLI) measures change in the aggregate extinction risk of species. It is a key indicator for tracking progress toward nine of the Aichi and many proposed post‐2020 Global Biodiversity Framework Targets. Here, we consider two formulations of the RLI used for reporting biodiversity trends at national scales. Disaggregated global RLIs measure changing national contributions to global extinction risk and are currently based on five taxonomic groups, while national RLIs measure changing national extinction risk and are based on taxonomic groups assessed multiple times in country. For 74% of nations, the disaggregated global RLI is currently based on three or fewer taxonomic groups. Meanwhile, national RLIs from selected pilot countries Finland, South Africa, and Brazil are computed from twelve, eight, and nine taxonomic groups, respectively. The national RLI and the disaggregated global RLI measure different aspects of biodiversity, in that the former detects national trends in populations of species for which each country is responsible while the latter provides standardized comparisons of nations' contributions to the global extinction risk of the same species groups. As governments commit to the post‐2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, we encourage them to monitor a standard set of taxonomic groups representing different biomes using both RLI formulations to ensure effective target tracking and accurate feedback on their conservation investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans are quickly reshaping species assemblages through the loss and gain of species at multiple scales. Extinctions and introductions are non‐random events known to be contributing to taxonomic homogenization. However, it is not yet clear if they also promote functional homogenization. Here, we assess whether extinctions and introductions are leading to taxonomic and functional homogenization of 64 oceanic island bird assemblages, belonging to 11 archipelagos.Based on island lists of extinct and extant, native and introduced species and on species traits, we use probabilistic hypervolumes in trait space to calculate functional beta‐diversity before and after extinctions and introductions. Bird extinctions and introductions promoted taxonomic and functional homogenization on most oceanic islands. These results follow our expectations, considering previous studies on taxonomic homogenization, the predictable link between taxonomic and functional diversity, and the trait similarity of many introduced species, often adapted to anthropogenic habitats, linked to the non‐randomness of bird introductions on islands.Taxonomic homogenization was more common across than within archipelagos, also corroborating previous studies describing stronger homogenization on islands that are further apart and thus had distinctive native assemblages. Surprisingly, the widespread loss of species with similar traits, namely large flightless birds, often led to functional differentiation across archipelagos. However, this differentiation effect tended to be offset by the homogenizing effect of introductions.Functional homogenization increases the vulnerability to global changes, by reducing the variability of responses to disturbance and thus the resilience of ecosystem services, posing a threat to human societies on islands. Our results highlight subtle variations in taxonomic and functional beta‐diversity of bird assemblages in oceanic islands, providing important insights to allow a better assessment of how anthropogenic changes might alter ecosystem functioning, which is vital to develop effective long‐term conservation strategies. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Understanding the variation in community composition and species abundances (i.e., β‐diversity) is at the heart of community ecology. A common approach to examine β‐diversity is to evaluate directional variation in community composition by measuring the decay in the similarity among pairs of communities along spatial or environmental distance. We provide the first global synthesis of taxonomic and functional distance decay along spatial and environmental distance by analysing 148 datasets comprising different types of organisms and environments. Location: Global. Time period: 1990 to present. Major taxa studied: From diatoms to mammals. Method: We measured the strength of the decay using ranked Mantel tests (Mantel r) and the rate of distance decay as the slope of an exponential fit using generalized linear models. We used null models to test whether functional similarity decays faster or slower than expected given the taxonomic decay along the spatial and environmental distance. We also unveiled the factors driving the rate of decay across the datasets, including latitude, spatial extent, realm and organismal features. Results: Taxonomic distance decay was stronger than functional distance decay along both spatial and environmental distance. Functional distance decay was random given the taxonomic distance decay. The rate of taxonomic and functional spatial distance decay was fastest in the datasets from mid‐latitudes. Overall, datasets covering larger spatial extents showed a lower rate of decay along spatial distance but a higher rate of decay along environmental distance. Marine ecosystems had the slowest rate of decay along environmental distances. Main conclusions: In general, taxonomic distance decay is a useful tool for biogeographical research because it reflects dispersal‐related factors in addition to species responses to climatic and environmental variables. Moreover, functional distance decay might be a cost‐effective option for investigating community changes in heterogeneous environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: We analyse the consequences of species extinctions and introductions on the functional diversity and composition of island bird assemblages. Specifically, we ask if introduced species have compensated the functional loss resulting from species extinctions. Location: Seventy‐four oceanic islands (> 100 km2) in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Time period: Late Holocene. Major taxa studied: Terrestrial and freshwater bird species. Methods: We compiled a species list per island (extinct and extant, native and introduced), and then compiled traits per species. We used single‐trait analyses to assess the effects of past species extinctions and introductions on functional composition. Then, we used probabilistic hypervolumes in trait space to calculate functional richness and evenness of original versus present avifaunas of each island (and net change), and to estimate how functionally unique are extinct and introduced species on each island. Results: The net effects of extinctions and introductions were: an increase in average species richness per island (alpha diversity), yet a decline in diversity across all islands (gamma diversity); an average increase in the prevalence of most functional traits, yet an average decline in functional richness and evenness, associated with the fact that extinct species were functionally more unique (when compared to extant natives) than introduced species. Main conclusions: Introduced species are on average offsetting (and even surpassing) the losses of extinct species per island in terms of species richness, and they are increasing the prevalence of most functional traits. However, they are not compensating for the loss of functional richness due to extinctions. Current island bird assemblages are becoming functionally poorer, having lost unique species and being composed of functionally more redundant species. This is likely to have cascading repercussions on the functioning of island ecosystems. We highlight that taxonomic and functional biodiversity should be assessed simultaneously to understand the global impacts of human activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Species distribution models (SDMs) have emerged as essential tools in the equipment of many ecologists, useful to explore species distributions in space and time and answering an assortment of questions related to biogeography, climate change biology and conservation biology. Historically, most SDM research concentrated on well‐known organisms, especially vertebrates. In recent years, these tools are becoming increasingly important for predicting the distribution of understudied invertebrate taxa. Here, we reviewed the literature published on main terrestrial arthropod predators (ants, ground beetles and spiders) to explore some of the challenges and opportunities of species distribution modelling in mega‐diverse arthropod groups. Location: Global. Methods: Systematic mapping of the literature and bibliometric analysis. Results: Most SDM studies of animals to date have focused either on broad samples of vertebrates or on arthropod species that are charismatic (e.g. butterflies) or economically important (e.g. vectors of disease, crop pests and pollinators). We show that the use of SDMs to map the geography of terrestrial arthropod predators is a nascent phenomenon, with a near‐exponential growth in the number of studies over the past ten years and still limited collaborative networks among researchers. There is a bias in studies towards charismatic species and geographical areas that hold lower levels of diversity but greater availability of data, such as Europe and North America. Conclusions: Arthropods pose particular modelling challenges that add to the ones already present for vertebrates, but they should also offer opportunities for future SDM research as data and new methods are made available. To overcome data limitations, we illustrate the potential of modern data sources and new modelling approaches. We discuss areas of research where SDMs may be combined with dispersal models and increasingly available phylogenetic and functional data to understand evolutionary changes in ranges and range‐limiting traits over past and contemporary time‐scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Habitat diversity has been linked to the diversity and structure of island communities, however, little is known about patterns and processes within habitats. Here we aim to determine the contributions of habitat type and inferred dispersal frequency to the differences in taxonomic structure between assemblages in the same island habitat. Location: The Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira, the Canary Islands and Cabo Verde). Taxon: Spiders (Araneae). Methods: We established forest and dry habitat sites (each with five plots) on two islands per archipelago. We collected spiders using standardised sampling protocols. We tested the differences in beta diversity separately for each habitat and for each inferred category of ballooning (an aerial dispersal strategy) frequency across geographic scales through nested non-parametric permutational multivariate analyses of variance. We then tested whether ballooning and habitat influenced heterogeneity in species composition (dispersion in beta diversity) in the two habitat types. We analysed the effects of habitat and ballooning on species abundance distribution (SAD) and rarity by fitting Gambin models and evaluating the contribution of ballooning categories to SAD. Results: Communities of the same archipelago and habitat were taxonomically more similar, and beta diversity increased with geographic scale, being greater in dry habitats. There was greater species replacement among assemblages in dry habitats than in forests, with greater differences for rare ballooners. There were no differences in SAD between habitats although dry habitat sites seemed to harbour more species with low abundances (rare species) than forests. Main conclusions: Habitat type does not only condition the differences between spider assemblages of the same habitat but also the scale at which they occur. These differences may be determined by the heterogeneity in the physical structure of each habitat as well as how much this structure facilitates aerial dispersal (ballooning), and should be considered in theories/hypotheses on island community assembly as well as in conservation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of functional diversity analyses in ecology has grown exponentially over the past two decades, broadening our understanding of biological diversity and its change across space and time. Virtually all ecological sub‐disciplines recognise the critical value of looking at species and communities from a functional perspective, and this has led to a proliferation of methods for estimating contrasting dimensions of functional diversity.Differences between these methods and their development generated terminological inconsistencies and confusion about the selection of the most appropriate approach for addressing any particular ecological question, hampering the potential for comparative studies, simulation exercises and meta‐analyses.Two general mathematical frameworks for estimating functional diversity are prevailing: those based on dissimilarity matrices (e.g. Rao entropy, functional dendrograms) and those relying on multidimensional spaces, constructed as either convex hulls or probabilistic hypervolumes.We review these frameworks, discuss their strengths and weaknesses and provide an overview of the main R packages performing these calculations. In parallel, we propose a way for organising functional diversity metrics in a unified scheme to quantify the richness, divergence and regularity of species or individuals under each framework. This overview offers a roadmap for confidently approaching functional diversity analyses both theoretically and practically. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 15th UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (COP15) will be held in Kunming, China in October 2021. Historically, CBDs and other multilateral treaties have either alluded to or entirely overlooked the subterranean biome. A multilateral effort to robustly examine, monitor, and incorporate the subterranean biome into future conservation targets will enable the CBD to further improve the ecological effectiveness of protected areas by including groundwater resources, subterranean ecosystem services, and the profoundly endemic subsurface biodiversity. To this end, we proffer a conservation roadmap that embodies five conceptual areas: (1) science gaps and data management needs; (2) anthropogenic stressors; (3) socioeconomic analysis and conflict resolution; (4) environmental education; and (5) national policies and multilateral agreements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, it is increasingly accepted that the focus of study needs to shift from taxonomic identity to the diversity of functional traits displayed by species within a community. Such an approach allows species to be grouped according to particular functional characteristics. Increasingly viewed as an extremely important group of model organisms, hoverflies have been the focus of a variety of ecological studies. Based on data regarding selected functional traits of hoverflies registered in Southeast Europe, the main aims of our study were to define hoverfly functional groups according to the similarity of these traits, as well as to compare the representation of delineated hoverfly functional groups among these vegetation types. We used fuzzy clustering to classify 568 SE European hoverfly species into five functional groups. The principle trait separating these functional groups was larval feeding type, followed by size of species range, flight ability, number of generations, inundation tolerance, and tolerance to human impact. For 9 of 11 vegetation types, the dominant functional group was characterized by species with good flight ability, having high human impact tolerance and more annual generations. The remaining two vegetation types, South‐west Balkan sub‐Mediterranean mixed oak forests and Mediterranean mixed forests, showed disparate dominance patterns, indicating that richness of functional groups is dependent on vegetation. Further investigation of whether and how established conservation measures enable recovery of the functional richness affected by habitat disturbance would help elucidate the importance of functional diversity in preserving biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise: Lantana and Lippia (Verbenaceae) are two large Linnean genera whose classification has been based on associated fruit traits: fleshy vs. dry fruits and one vs. two seed‐bearing units. We reconstruct evolutionary relationships and the evolution of the two fruit traits to test the validity of these traits for classification. Methods: Previous studies of plastid DNA sequences provided limited resolution for this group. Consequently, seven nuclear loci, including ITS, ETS, and five PPR loci, were sequenced for 88 accessions of the Lantana/Lippia clade and three outgroups. Results: Neither Lantana nor Lippia is monophyletic. Burroughsia, Nashia, Phyla, and several Aloysia species are included within the clade comprising Lantana and Lippia. We provide a hypothesis for fruit evolution and biogeographic history in the group and their relevance for classification. Conclusions: Fleshy fruits evolved multiple times in the Lantana/Lippia clade and thus are not suitable taxonomic characters. Several sections of Lantana and Lippia and the small genera are monophyletic, but Lippia section Zappania is broadly paraphyletic, making circumscription of genera difficult. Lippia sect. Rhodolippia is a polyphyletic group characterized by convergence in showy bracts. Species of Lantana sect. Sarcolippia, previously transferred to Lippia, are not monophyletic. The clade originated and diversified in South America, with at least four expansions into both Central America and the Caribbean and two to Africa. The types species of Lantana and Lippia occur in small sister clades, rendering any taxonomy that retains either genus similar to its current circumscription impossible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While several recent studies have focused on global insect population trends, all are limited in either space or taxonomic scope. As global monitoring programs for insects are currently not implemented, inherent biases exist within most data. Expert opinion, which is often widely available, proves to be a valuable tool where hard data are limited. Our aim is to use global expert opinion to provide insights on the root causes of potential insect declines worldwide, as well as on effective conservation strategies that could mitigate insect biodiversity loss. We obtained 753 responses from 413 respondents with a wide variety of spatial and taxonomic expertise. The most relevant threats identified through the survey were agriculture and climate change, followed by pollution, while land management and land protection were recognized as the most significant conservation measures. Nevertheless, there were differences across regions and insect groups, reflecting the variability within the most diverse class of eukaryotic organisms on our planet. Lack of answers for certain biogeographic regions or taxa also reflects the need for research in less investigated settings. Our results provide a novel step toward understanding global threats and conservation measures for insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caves and other subterranean habitats fulfill the requirements of experimental model systems to address general questions in ecology and evolution. Yet, the harsh working conditions of these environments and the uniqueness of the subterranean organisms have challenged most attempts to pursuit standardized research.Two main obstacles have synergistically hampered previous attempts. First, there is a habitat impediment related to the objective difficulties of exploring subterranean habitats and our inability to access the network of fissures that represents the elective habitat for the so‐called "cave species." Second, there is a biological impediment illustrated by the rarity of most subterranean species and their low physiological tolerance, often limiting sample size and complicating laboratory experiments.We explore the advantages and disadvantages of four general experimental setups (in situ, quasi in situ, ex situ, and in silico) in the light of habitat and biological impediments. We also discuss the potential of indirect approaches to research. Furthermore, using bibliometric data, we provide a quantitative overview of the model organisms that scientists have exploited in the study of subterranean life.Our over‐arching goal is to promote caves as model systems where one can perform standardized scientific research. This is important not only to achieve an in‐depth understanding of the functioning of subterranean ecosystems but also to fully exploit their long‐discussed potential in addressing general scientific questions with implications beyond the boundaries of this discipline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]