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The article discusses whether individual reflection and collective reflection mode together effectively fulfil the interest of the employer, the individual and the university, considered as the three party knowledge interests. The concept of experimental learning or individual reflective mode is identified as an effective process by the European University Lifelong Learning Network (EULLearN). In Great Britain, Assessment of Prior and/or Experiential Learning (APEL) is used as a process of identifying experimental learning. The concept of productive reflection is developed by D. Boud, P. Cressey and P. Docherty. It attempts to solve the conflicting demands of the employer and the learner and give an opportunity to the university to access organizational knowledge production.

In this overview of non-vocational adult education and the training of its professionals we seek to provide a map of existing provision through secondary analysis of existing data. The territory is a complex one with a range of providers and considerable blurring of the vocational and non-vocational divide. Further, because of devolution within the four countries of the UK, there are certain relatively minor differences in the four administrations. Where these are of some significance, they are noted, but in general the specific focus is on England. Our analysis is based on data gathered as part of the Europe-wide ALPINE survey. Our secondary data are augmented by personal interviews with key informants representing different parts of the adult education sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the author discusses the political issues surrounding child care as practiced in Western nations. She notes that governments in Europe, but not the United States, have mandated two features regarding child care, namely provisions for guaranteed maternity leave for working mothers and the possibility of extended absence from work for a male caregiver, if approved by an employer. More liberal child care services offered by continental European countries are contrasted with the comparatively few facilities available to citizens of Great Britain.

Atypical forms of employment (part-time work, mini-jobs, fixed-term contracts and solo self-employment) have gained in importance overall in recent years in many European countries. They are often part of an irregular career pattern and carry a high risk of unemployment. In a 6-country comparison (Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Italy, Denmark and Poland) we consider whether and in what way national social protection laws cover the various forms of non-standard employment and the specific risks these entail. Significant variations were found in coverage standards and practices between countries as well as substantial variability within countries in their responses to different types of non-standard employment. A need for further and improved coordination of both social legislation and tax law is identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines Great Britain's policy toward Europe as of September 2008 and how it may develop in the period to 2020. It examines policy possibilities and proposals including conditional Europeanism and a commitment to the European Union (EU), a stalemate position that could lead to possible crisis, and the development of a more committed pro-Europeanism. The authors discuss the possible scenarios and how they might impact British and EU defense policy and foreign policy, as well as the EU climate change agenda and the Euro currency. The article discusses how European integration might influence European policy development in Great Britain.

This article argues that, despite globalisation forces, national education and training systems have kept their particularities. Policies of convergence, enhanced by supranational organisations such as the European Commission, have not yet led to a homogenisation of national education and training systems. The latter are still influenced by the political, economic and social framework. Thus, no single model of lifelong learning prevailed in Europe. There were countries close to the demand-led model of ‘voluntary partnership’ (e.g. UK), countries representative of the ‘formalised social partnership’ model (e.g. Sweden) and countries adhering to the ‘statist’ model (e.g. Greece). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies have suggested that the neglect of stand management is having a detrimental effect on the habitat of a number of woodland birds in Britain. The remedy, to reinstate active management, appears to run counter to a number of other conservation recommendations such as re-wilding and naturalizing of stands. We attempt to unpick this apparent conflict by considering the resource needs of British woodland birds relative to those of birds elsewhere in Europe, and whether these needs differ between those with declining and those with increasing populations. We also consider how these requirements relate to stand management and stand dynamics and consider options for future management. We found that whilst stand stage per se did not discriminate between the declining and increasing species pools, correspondence analysis suggested that there were differences between the groups in their preferred habitat features. Declining woodland birds in Britain appear to be most closely associated with the presence of deciduous trees in the stand, an open canopy, and ecotonal structures. Species present in the near continent, but not in Britain, were associated with deciduous snags, large trees, canopy layer and holes. Species increasing in Britain were located between these groups on an axis of woodland maturity, and most strongly associated with habitat features of canopy layer and holes. Stand management can help provide the structures apparently preferred by many of the declining species and, if targeted, can deliver them at a more rapid rate than development of similar features through natural stand dynamics. However, there are often multiple pathways to particular structures and a single recommendation of active management is likely to be insufficient to secure the necessary features in most situations. In addition, habitat features important in Europe as a whole may not be the most critical at a local or regional scale. The varying requirements of the different species pools suggest that greater recognition of this would be appropriate in developing conservation strategies in different regions, and greater clarity is desirable over conservation objectives and habitat structures for particular woodlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In broad terms, European students of the history of Latin America have concentrated their researches upon colonial policies, interactions between Europeans (and their American-born descendants) and indigenous peoples, economic and commercial structures, and political life (whether of elites or, more recently, of subaltern groups). The last two decades have witnessed a significant expansion in Britain and elsewhere of research into gender studies and cultural studies. Although the latter discipline embraces an awareness of the importance of the history of science, this has tended to be rather narrowly focussed upon travel writing, and the extent to which there were links between the promotion of scientific travel and both imperial and national projects, particularly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. However, like the great British scientific travellers of the nineteenth century in Latin America, the works of cultural studies specialists tend to reveal more about European attitudes and misconceptions than Latin American reality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The markets for management buyouts in the U.K. and continental Europe have experienced dramatic growth in the past ten years. In the U.K., buyouts accounted for half of the total M&A activity (measured by value) in 2005. And as in the U.S. during the‘80s, the greatest number of U.K. buyouts in recent years have been management- and investor-led acquisitions of divisions of large corporations. In continental Europe, by contrast, the largest fraction of deals has involved the purchase of family-owned private businesses. But in recent years, increased pressure for shareholder value in countries like France, Netherlands, and even Germany has led to a growing number of buyouts of divisions of listed companies. Like the U.K., continental Europe has also seen a small but growing number of purchases of entire public companies (known as private-to-public transactions, or PTPs), including the largest ever buyout in Europe, the €13 billion purchase this year of the Danish corporation TDC. In view of the record levels of capital raised by European private equity funds in recent years-which, until 2005, exceeded the amounts invested in any given year-we can expect more growth in private equity investment in the near future. In continental Europe, the prospects for buyouts remain especially strong, given both the pressure from investors to restructure larger corporations and the possibilities for adding value in family-owned firms. But, as the authors note, today's private equity firms face a number of challenges in earning adequate returns for their investors. One is increased competition. In addition to the increased activity of U.S. private equity firms, local private equity investors are also facing competition from hedge funds and new entrants such as government-sponsored operators, family offices, and wealthy entrepreneurs. Another major challenge is finding value-preserving exit vehicles. Although an IPO is an option for the largest buyouts with growth prospects, most buyout investments are harvested either through sales to other companies or, increasingly, other private equity firms. The latter transactions, known as “secondary” buyouts, now account for a significant share of new funds invested by private equity firms across Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is a tribute to the life work of Maurice Kogan. Very little of higher education's landscape in the United Kingdom has remained unchanged over the past four decades and this article sets out to analyze the way the perception of the role of universities in society has changed in the intervening period. This it does through three perspectives: continuity and change, continuity in change and continuity in the midst of change. Each yields very different visions of the university. Against this ‘inside’ view, the second part of the article examines current British higher education policy from an ‘outsider’ standpoint and very particularly the current strategies towards the European Higher Education and Research Areas. It concludes by arguing that Britain's higher education policy vis a vis Europe re-states a dilemma which these Islands have had to tackle for the best part of the past 250 Years. This dilemma is whether to lay priority on higher education as a global instrument or to endorse a more limited, less ambitious agenda of ‘European’ integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial differences remain between the profitability of banks in different European countries. This article considers the relationship between competition and profitability in European banking focussing on the experience of the UK where two issues are considered: why British banks have been earning excess returns for more than a decade and why British banks seem to be more profitable than their Continental counterparts. A paradigm is offered to explain this. A distinction is made between shareholder value (SHV) and stakeholder value (STV) banks whose business objectives are often different. Significant differences exist between European countries in the balance of SHV and STV banks. The UK is almost unique in Europe in having almost exclusively SHV-based banks. Pressures will intensify for all European banks to adopt SHV strategies, which will imply substantial changes in bank strategies and business operations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While a good deal has been written about the contacts between British and continental reformers in 1848 and afterwards, the same cannot be said of the 1820s and 1830s. This article will investigate the involvement in European affairs of Thomas Perronet Thompson and John Bowring, two of the closest colleagues of the utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham. This article has three main purposes: first, to establish the relevance to British radicalism of a European perspective, using Thompson and Bowring as exemplars who can be taken to represent one of the most important strands in the British radicalism of their day; secondly, to improve our understanding of reform agitation and ideologies in early nineteenth-century Britain and Europe; and, thirdly, in view of the customary focus of historians on 1848 and after, to begin to redress this imbalance in the historiography by drawing attention to the 1820s and 1830s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On both the national and European levels, cooperation between state and society has developed considerably with regard to decision-makingand regulatory enforcement, often with the explicit intention of raising the effectiveness and legitimacy of the regulatory practices. A number of instruments (e.g. voluntary agreements, joint implementation, environmental dispute resolution, legislative consultation and concertation procedures) have been developed and introduced, which seem to generalize and expand cooperation as a principle of environmental regulation altogether. The present paper aims to take up these developments by drawing a picture of cooperative environmental regulation in Great Britain, France, Germany and the USA, the purpose being to delineate and compare national styles or patterns of cooperation. It isargued that each country has a proper way of organizing and molding cooperation within public administration and between state and society. Moreover, each style of cooperation is linked to distinct working relationships, problem-solving approaches and strategies of validation and legitimization. In spite of these different traditions and styles, however, it will be argued that all countries are bringing about a less autonomous and more cooperative state. This general development, which is repeated on the European level as well, raises the need for a more strongly structured and transparent organization of cooperative relations between the state and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Addresses the response of Great Britain and France to the prospect of integrating their Islamic minorities and their approach to groups within their borders. Complications of the process of homogenization, differentiation and emerging identities of minorities; Role of religion in shaping the European identity; History of Europe's opposition and continued hostility toward Islam; Emphasis of Islam on women's role in society; Development of the educational system of European countries.

Provides an overview of several books about the social history of Great Britain and Europe from 900-1200. Opinions on the Viking heritage of the British people in the book "The Norsemen in the Viking Age," by Eric Christiansen; Discussion of charters and politics in "English Episcopal Acta, 24: Durham, 1153 -1195," by M. G. Snape; Evolution of the British social structure explained in "Power and Border Lordship in Medieval France: The County of the Perche, 1000-1226," by Kathleen Thompson.

Provides an overview of several books on the social history of Great Britain and Europe from 1200-1500. Focus on politics and economy in the book "Why Magna Carta? Angevin England Revisited," by N. Fryde; Lifestyle of an archbishop explored in "The Register of William Melton, Archbishop of York, 1317-1340," by A. M. Chadwick and C. Phillpotts; Analysis of life in almshouses in "God's House at Ewelme: Life, Devotion and Architecture in a Fifteenth-Century Almshouse," by J. A. Goodall.

Provides an overview of several books on the social history of Great Britain and Europe during the 17th century. Highlights of the book "Britain in Revolution 1625-1660," by Austin Woolrych; Impact of the Roman Catholic Church on Spanish multi-culturalism discussed in the book "Church, Religion and Society in Early Modern Spain," by Helen Rawlings; Role of women in the Catholic religion explained in "Between Exaltation and Infamy: Female Mystics in the Golden Age of Spain," by Stephen Haliczer.

Provides an overview of books about the social history of Great Britain and Europe in the 18th century, published as of 2003. Politics in western and eastern Europe featured in "Fractured Europe, 1600-1721," by D. J. Sturdy; Impact of Napoleonic France on the Italian, Spanish and German states discussed in "Napoléon et l'Europe," by J. C. Martin; Role of the military based on the observations of author J. Black in his book "Warfare in the Eighteenth Century"; Emergence of several states in Europe emphasized in "The Birth of the Great Power System, 1740-1815," by H. Scott.

Provides an overview of books about the social history of Great Britain and Europe in the 19th century, published as of 2003. Focus on the tension between German, Jews and Poles in "Entre et Allemagne et Pologne," by T. Serrier; Perceptions of the word other by British and French citizens explained in "National Character and Public Spirit in Britain and France, 1750-1914," by R. Romani; Changes in the European politics discussed in "Political Mobilization in 19th Century Europe," by R. Goldstein.

Provides an overview of books about the social history of Great Britain and Europe published as of 2003. Description of the political life of Labour party official Stafford Cripps featured in "The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps, 1879-1952," by P. Clarke; Pessimism of freelance writers in developing a professional career discussed in "Freelance Writers and the Changing Terrain of Intellectual Life in Britain, 1880-1980," by T. W. Hayek; Interpretation of fascism in "The Fascism Reader," by Aristotle A. Kallis.

Calcium is an essential requirement for the successful growth and development of gastropod molluscs. Data for British freshwater gastropods were used to examine the relationship between environmental calcium requirements and British and European range sizes. At both spatial scales calciphile species, which require a high level of environmental calcium, had significantly smaller range sizes than species able to exploit a wide range of environmental calcium levels. However, at least in Britain, range size may also be influenced by the availability of suitable habitat. British and European range sizes were significantly correlated. This study provides evidence for niche-based explanations of range size variation, and suggests that both niche breadth and niche availability are important in determining range size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides a decomposition of the welfare impact on the UK arising from the changes in manufacturing trade consequent upon joining the EC. The methodology employed is that of computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling, where the underlying model is based on trade under imperfect competition with firms producing under conditions of increasing returns to scale. CGE models can be seen as providing numerical illustrations of theory, or as empirical tools providing estimates of policies. A second aim of this article is then to asses the extent to which CGE models can be used as serious tools of policy analysis. We examine this by assessing the success of the model in replicating counterfactual outcomes. The results indicate (i) that the model does reasonably well in replicating complex reality and that such models can be empirically useful; (ii) that a substantial portion of the welfare impact is attributed to distortions associated with imperfect competition, and that the impact is potentially quite large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article sheds light on land-value taxation in Great Britain. Three strands may be discerned in the history of land-value taxation in Great Britain, land tax gathering for public revenue purposes, development value capture for the benefit of the community, and recoupment of infrastructure costs. The Romans recognized land as a target for measurement and assessment by surveyors for taxation on a quinquennial basis, which would have been a normal part of their imperial taxation during the four centuries of their occupation in the first millennium. Subsequently land continued to have a fiscal role. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the outstanding feature of Europe was the feudal system. What emerges from this history is there has been a distinct lack of success during the century with successive Governments in bringing site-value rating/taxation within their armory of tax-gathering methods to supplement local and national revenues. The Labour Government of 1964 made another, quite different, attempt to secure the return of a substantial part of the development value created by the community to the community, and the reduction of the cost of land to authority for essential purposes.

The development of chemical pesticides enabled farmers to abandon more traditional control strategies, but an over-reliance on the use of chemicals led to problems of resistance and environmental damage. A more advanced system, integrated crop management, has been developed which involves the use of both chemical and cultural methods; a number of trials carried out in the UK and Europe have shown that this approach is both economically viable and environmental beneficial compared with the conventional alternative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary 1. The golden plover Pluvialis apricaria is of high conservation concern in Europe. Previous studies have concentrated on how birds utilize moorland. We used radio-telemetry to study their habitat selection and behaviour, during both night and day, in an upland landscape of enclosed fields and moorland in county Durham, UK. 2. During incubation adult golden plover fed principally in enclosed fields 1·1–3·7 km from their moorland nests, but spent less than 5% of their foraging time on moorland. In contrast, birds with broods spent around 85% of their time foraging on moorland. 3. Birds on moorland selected calcareous grassland and avoided old stands of dense tall heather (> c. 12 cm). Younger, shorter (< c. 5–8 cm), sparser heather was used as much as would be expected by chance. Mires of harestail cotton grass Eriophorum vaginatum , the dominant community type when heather Calluna vulgaris is heavily grazed, was selected on both moorland sites. 4. Only 17 of 85 fields in the study area were used for foraging by breeding golden plover. The number of molehills, a reported indicator of earthworm abundance, was the best single variable explaining field choice. Both field size and distance from road had small but significant effects on field choice. 5. We advocate that groups of enclosed fields regularly used by golden plover during the breeding season be afforded specific protection under conservation schemes (e.g. environmentally sensitive area agreements). Conservationists wishing to locate such fields should look for areas with high earthworm populations, as indicated by molehills, close (< 4 km) to breeding populations of golden plover. Rank heather on flat or gently sloping ground should be kept short by appropriate burning or grazing. Areas of calcareous grassland should be preserved. 6. These data illustrate the value of detailed radio-telemetry in informing equally detailed habitat management for important bird species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To what extent does the experience of other European economies in which apprenticeship has proved successful suggest scope for reviving apprenticeship in the UK without requiring institutional regulation along German lines? The institutional attributes of apprenticeship in four smaller European economies (Austria, Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands) are shown to be closer to Germany's social partnership than to the UK's deregulated market, in terms of: statutory governance; formal educational requirements; administration at sectoral and local levels through social partnership; and funding based upon a clear separation of responsibilities between government and employers, though not between employers and apprentices. At the same time, the introduction of statutory apprenticeship into Irish industry in recent years, in an institutional environment that has traditionally had much in common with that of the UK, suggests that the scope for institutional development in support of apprenticeship has been obscured by the widespread tendency to limit the choice of international comparisons to the Anglo-Germanic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

David Johnstone and Cliff Warwick review policies for inclusion and illustrate with examples from Europe and the United Kingdom. They provide some 'action points' for local authorities and argue that learning support reaches beyond the simple confines of school placement and deep into the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article draws upon new empirical material to explore the views of managers involved in European Works Councils (EWCs) in UK-owned firms in order to make some assessment of their opinions and experiences of these transnational bodies. The survey data indicates that managers are using the EWCs as part of their armoury of corporate communications although they perceive raised expectations, finance and transnational trade unionism as key disadvantages of these new institutions. It is suggested that EWCs may become a key institutional battleground over the way in which industrial and employee relations are Europeanised in future. Euro-companies may seek to use EWCs as a means to reinforce corporate decisions, whereas the trade union movement looks to EWCs as an arena to spread best practice in employment. The survey data indicates that, thus far at least, UK companies have devised clear strategies in managing EWCs, using them to their advantage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents news briefs related to nursing as of September 1999. Creation of The Sheffield Institute for Studies on Ageing in Sheffield, England; Prevalence of depression in Europe; Research on the obesity levels in Great Britain.

Focuses on the history of Great Britain and Europe in terms of its economic condition during the eighteenth century. Consular system adopted by trading communities; Contribution of art and music to the economic stability of the countries; Establishment of large-scale cotton production that has revolutionized the textile industry.

Focuses on the relation of Great Britain to European countries during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era. Consideration of the British attack on Copenhagen, Denmark in September 1807; Great Britain's intervention in 1808 to help expel the French; Inclusion of Britain's commercial supremacy as a principal theme of French propaganda.

Beech bark disease is an often lethal malady of Fagus sylvatica and F. grandifolia. Observations in North America and recent studies conducted in Great Britain and France support the concept that the disease complex occurs when bark, infested by the scale insect Cryptococcus fagi, is infected and killed by fungi of the genus Nectria. In North America, Great Britain and in the rest of Europe, beech trees affected by the C.fagi-Nectria complex are rapidly invaded by other insects (Xyloterus spp.) and white rot fungi.

The globalization of economic life and the restructuring of the international economy since the 1970s have generated a new social scientific interest in spatial questions but rather less interest in territorial boundaries. Much research on economic and spatial restructuring has taken place in the so-called advanced industrial states where national borders appear non-problematical. Even where national borders have been violently contested as in eastern Europe, one of the effects has been to underline the relative stability and harmony which characterize such boundaries in the West. Yet, few borders anywhere have resulted from plebiscites or democratic negotiation at international level instead, secret manipulations and some degree or threat of force are usually present. The subject of the article, Great Britain-Irish territorial border reflects not only the impact of over two decades of European Union economic integration but also the consequences of violent ethno-national conflict over the same period. As such it provides a useful arena for examining some of the apparently contradictory influences which serve to undermine and consolidate national borders and national sovereignty in contemporary Europe.

This article examines, within the context of recent history, the position of migrant workers and citizens of minority status using evidence from Great Britain and several other Western European societies and considers these in terms of changing ideologies in the new Europe. In Britain, the populist notion that black encompasses all those visibly different from whites including all those of mixed percentage is currently able to command an almost universal compliance, at least in public discourse. The language of public discourse indicates political and cultural properties, not only reflecting and reproducing these, but creating ways of perceiving relationships and problems and presenting selected resolutions. The lack of a clear, shared language which would facilitate communication reflects social divisions and cultural struggles within a process of fragmentation. In Britain in the 1960s immigration, immigrants and the host community were widely used to define race issues, locating the problems in the former and largely ignoring the latter. In the 1970s ethnic group and ethnic minority were adopted as descriptive terms for those visibly distinguishable from the white majority by their skin colour.

Focuses on the development for Catholic participation in politics in the countries of classic Christian Democracy in Continental Europe specifically Great Britain. Increase in the readiness of British churches to speak out in corporate capacity on issues of public policy; Factors maintaining close order in the countries of classic Continental Christian Democracy; Conflict between church and state.

A number of factors are currently combining to raise the political profile of pensions. The value of the basic pension was increased at irregular intervals until the inflationary mid-1970s when it was adjusted biannually in line with the higher of prices and earnings. An issue arising with particular force in the Great Britain is the relationship between public and private pensions. Though private pension schemes exist in most other European countries, their significance is often not as great as here. While the replacement rate between state pensions and average earning during working life seems to be lower in the Great Britain than in some other European countries, the picture is more favorable when private pensions are taken into account.

Henry George's influence was greater in Great Britain than in the United States. The 80's and 90's there were particularly favorable for the reception of his revolutionary ideas. Though, thanks to such thinkers as Alfred Russell Wallace and James and John Stuart Mill, a land reform movement already existed, its sudden rise to national significance was due to George. George's writing and speaking skills and his dedication moved many serious citizens into the political Left and heavily influenced men and women who became leaders of British non-Marxian socialism, at the formation and consolidation of their movement. While George's followers broke with both the Wallace and socialist movements, George's rhetorical talents awakened the broad circles of thinking people to a consciousness of the full range of the social question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on policy communities of Great Britain and Europe. It seems possible to formulate broad characterizations of the British and European policy processes in terms of the relationship between government and interest groups. There is a preferred type of machinery in Great Britain, reflecting normative values, which is to avoid electoral polities and public conflict in order to reach consensus or accommodation in the labyrinth of consultative machinery. This style is aptly labeled as bureaucratic accommodation.

Central to the 'new politics' is the increased salience of non-material issues and a heightened concern with participation. 'New social movements' and 'new politics' parties are contingent manifestations of this new politics, which is also manifest in changed orientations toward established political parties. In most respects, the British appear no less well-disposed toward the 'new politics' than their European neighbours. Yet Britain is distinguished by the absence of either a radical ecology movement or a successful 'new politics' party. British exceptionalism is explained by institutional arrangements which constrain the environmental movement toward integration rather than opposition, and an electoral system which polarises political competition and inhibits the development of new parties. One consequence is the preservation of the Labour Party as a beneficiary of, and vehicle for, the expression of much political dissent. As a result, in Britain the 'new politics' is to an unusual degree combined with 'old politics'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reviews the place which the comparative study of European countries has occupied in the development of political science as an academic discipline, and discusses how single country studies can contribute towards the construction of new models for cross-national research. Particular attention is paid to the contribution made by the late Stein Rokkan to this development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article the lack of cumulation in foreign policy studies is discussed by way of analyzing fourteen books on British policy on Western European integration. A surprising non-use of prior studies within the same subject area is found, and the possible reasons for this is discussed. Particularly the lack of explicit hypotheses and conclusions and the tendency to compile instead of select variables is noted. It appears that there is a gap between theoretical and empirical studies in international relations which cannot easily be closed. However, the article concludes with a plea for more comparative studies on foreign policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents the characteristics of the authoritarian British model of school development, and suggests an alternative educational model of centralized governmental involvement in education. Context of British educational policy; Protection of the individual interests of the powerful by the market; Effects of a central government taking increased power to the center.

Focuses on the report of the Treasury and Civil Service Committee on the future of Great Britain in the European Monetary System (EMS). Restriction of the British membership to the EMS; Role of the EMS as an adjustable exchange rate system; Reason for the reappraisal of full British participation in the EMS.

The article presents an analysis of British politics in relation to Europe. It focuses on the British policy regarding the post-war construction in Europe, noting how domestic politics may affect Great Britain's international relations. Consequences of the country' political difficulty are enumerated, suggesting to investigate such consequences and to further consider how the question of Europe may be integrated into the British politics. The process of domestic politics is defined as well as offers a description of the business of politics and the structure of politics. Also provided are various impairments of the British political system including inadequacy, corruption, and disloyalty.

This article looks at the European Works Council Directive and the implications it has for large companies in Europe. It particularly seeks to illustrate the effect this has had on British companies by following the implementation of an 'Article 13' agreement in the Nat West Group. Here, the company and the staff representatives agreed to set up a World Staff Council that met and exceeded the minimum terms laid down in the directive. The article explores the problems and the potential for the parties in implementing the new consultative forum, and gauges the views of the management and staff representatives after the forum's first meeting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the comparison drawn between the financial provisions made by English and continental European banks for industrial companies, during the half-century before 1939. Examination of evidence on the history of banks and bank lending; Main elements of the historical and theoretical comparisons made between English and continental European banks; Analysis of research on historical developments in countries that developed universal banking.

The article focuses on the economic, social, and political changes that occurred as European societies ceased to be primarily agrarian in economic structure and devoted proportionately more of their resources and labor to the production of non-agricultural commodities and services. Industrialization is not identical either with economic growth or economic development, although it is closely associated with both. The process of economic growth, including in the modern era the special case of industrialization, involves the interaction of four broad classes or categories of factors--population, resources, technology, and institutions. In conclusion, there was not one model for industrialization in the nineteenth century. Coal and human capital were the two basic ingredients, but in combination with one another and with other elements they produced a variety of patterns of industrialization. The customary depiction of an industrial revolution in Great Britain and its repetition in continental Europe and elsewhere distorts the historical record.

The article focuses on typologies and evidence that serve as a guide to economic growth in Europe during the nineteenth century. There has also been increased reliance on comparative methods by historians seeking to achieve a cross-fertilization of explanatory ideas. For both purposes it is desirable, for the first purpose essential, that any historical generalizations called into aid should be not only true of several particular instances but also should be very widely applicable. It could be harmfully misleading if what looked to be proclamations of universal relationships turned out to be no more than accounts of one or two highly individual cases, disguised in the language of generality. All the chief schemes expounding alleged universalities in the history of economic growth have received plenty of criticism, both appreciative and hostile, but it is doubtful whether they have often been starkly confronted by the question whether the evidence they use is comprehensive enough to provide a secure foundation of genuine history for edifices as vast as they have grown to be. They have been challenged on grounds of unclarity or inappropriateness in their basic concepts, or because they have been inaccurate on some specific points, or because some particular case may be more convincingly interpreted by postulating a different chain of causation.

The article comments on the article "British Armaments and European Industrialization, 1890-1914: The Spanish Case Re-Examined," by R.J. Harrison. Harrison's article examined the economic and political conditions in Spain from 1890 to 1914. It is discusses the industrialization of European countries and how Great Britain was imbibed on building armaments. The article also considers Spain's working population that is engaged in agriculture during the period. It explores the scandal involving the Spanish naval program of the government of Antonio Maura. Official Assessor of the Naval Ministry, Juan Macias, accused the whole government of prevarication in the adjudication of tenders for the squadron.

The article presents a discussion about the spread of the British flora existing from late-glacial period. The article aims to identify which plant species survived the last Ice Age era by examining evidence from the late-glacial condition in north-west Europe such as fruits, seeds, pollen grains, flora, and fauna. It is noted that after such condition, tree-less tundra appeared due to the commencement of ice in regions such Denmark, Sweden, and Germany. An examination was conducted on plants, fossils, habitats, climate, and soil which resulted to the identification of several species widely existing beyond their present-day area in Great Britain like the Polenium, Teucrium scordium, and Dryas octopetala.