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The article presents the author's comments on "The Journal of Animal Ecology," vol. 9 and two books by H.C. Darby "The Medieval Fenland," and "The Draining of the Fens." The author believes that Averil Morley's paper on recolonization of burnt woodland by birds published in the journal is a useful piece of information about ecological succession of animals in Great Britain. He praises Darby for treating the economic development of Fenland in his two books with general interest.

Old concepts become stumbling blocks to human progress. Customs, laws, organizations either must be changed to meet new conditions in a changing social environment or must be discarded entirely. So it is with definitions. Either they must be understood to refer to changed situations or new terms must be invented to meet a radically altered situation. The inherited definition of the rural community is positively inhibiting rural interest in the broader contacts of rural life. The earlier concept of a rural community included a vaguely and indefinitely bounded physical area supposed to be occupied by people who had more or less common interests. Many definitions have been written, but two or three will indicate the trend of thinking. The building of real, local farm communities is perhaps the main task in creating an adequate rural civilization. The present situation in rural life calls for a change in traditional definitions and stress on possible objectives for progress. The change needed is from a territorial or spatial definition of a community to a functional one.

The article present an overview of pamphlets dealing with the most important contemporary problems, represents something relatively new in the U.S. public education. Eleven of the pamphlets now being considered deal specifically with problems related to the post-war world, three are focused on the issue of race relations, and two are concerned with questions of a more abstract nature, namely constitutional rights and the relation between religion and democracy. The bulletin, "Adventures in small-scale rural enterprises in South Carolina" contains a series of human interest stories dealing with some of these enterprises and the people responsible for them. Small rural industries may play an important role in the future economic development of the South. They also offer possibilities for rehabilitating wounded soldiers. Besides making a definite contribution to the production of food, fiber and other things needed for war, such industries provide market outlets for farm products, employ farm people and bring in extra profits for farmers.

This article focuses on investment prospects in the U.S. The article is the result of early research conducted by the Committee for Economic Development, but not a product of that body. The author discusses the immediate prospect of high employment and successful investment, then addresses concerns that the form of financing of investment may lead to depression and unemployment, and finally, addresses possible forms of investment financing that will successfully avoid depression and stagnation. The author presents strategies that will facilitate the flow of cash into equity as opposed to debt, including fiscal policy recommendations relative to tax structure and state and local regulations.

This article focuses on the importance of part time employment in economic and social development. According to the author part-time workers perform their duties under various arrangements. In the most formal arrangement part-time employees are actually on an employer's payroll and work a few days a week or a few hours a day under his direct supervision. Other part-time employees do not work under the employer's direct supervision and are paid on a commission or piece-rate basis. In the legal sense a number of these persons would more properly be called part-time agents, particularly in those cases where the work consists of selling a product or service. The importance of part-time workers changes with the state of the economy. In time of war, for instance, the contribution of part-time workers can probably be considered essential to victory, the contribution is indispensable in the war plants to sustaining or increasing the output of munitions, as well as in the low priority industries which, as a result of compulsory transfers or direction of labor to essential occupations, must depend to a great extent on part-time labor to continue operations.

This article discusses research as a social process in Great Britain. One of the central problems of British society is that of organizing its scientific and technically trained manpower in such a manner that the welfare and security needs are met. The present organization of British science does not contribute much to economic improvement. In the nineteenth century new developments were started because inventors with imagination and energy set about solving practical problems. The aims of contemporary research organization are generally stated in a qualitative fashion. The origins of each new product or process can usually be traced to a few key sources in widely separated areas of fundamental science. The foregoing description of the process by which science is put to use emphasizes the interrelationships which exist at the present stage in the evolution of social organization in research. A complete and balanced managerial set-up for translating fundamental research into new technology and social services can be conveniently sub-divided into a series of essential functions. Each of the functions of research organization requires a special combination of skills and differentiated emphasis in the training of technical workers. The exact relationship and emphasis applied to various functions of research and development varies from industry to industry but.

The article discusses the promotion of economic growth for underdeveloped areas of the world through international co-operation. It is explained that the economic growth of underdeveloped nations of the world is stated to depend upon the fulfillment through international action of two conditions, which includes the provision of technique or know-how, and, second, the supplying of capital funds to the underdeveloped nations. The article focuses on the economic growth and assistance occurring in Venezuela.

This article concentrates on a problem which so far has received only little attention by economists, the role of human resources in the process of economic advancement of underdeveloped areas. This topic has formidable proportions and cannot be treated in full within the framework of this paper. The author confines his remarks, therefore, to a specialized point, the place of entrepreneurship in economic development, and hopes to show, at least by implication, some of the more general problems arising in a consideration of the role played by human factors of production in the process of economic development. A study of economists' opinions on entrepreneurship leads to strange and sometimes contradictory results. Some writers have identified entrepreneurship with the function of uncertainty-bearing, others with the coordination of productive resources, others with the introduction of innovations, and still others with the provision of capital. It is probably true that at different times and under different institutional conditions each of these aspects may have constituted the primary, or at least socially most significant function, of entrepreneurs, and this function was then selected as typical and regarded as the unique contribution of entrepreneurs in the process of production.

This article examines the role of the science teacher in community development. On the assumption that community development is one of the major functions of education, the science teacher as a member of a professional group shares with all other educators the responsibility of facilitating community development. And as a specialist with understanding and convictions about relevance of the method which characterizes his approach to problems, the science teacher has a responsibility for helping members of the community to develop skill in the methods of science.

SUMMARY In recent years there has been a great development of interest in the principles and the problems of rational decision-making and rational action. Economists, mathematicians, statisticians, logicians, engineers, and philosophers have all addressed their efforts to various phases of the general problem of rationality. This paper attempts a provisional synthesis of their basic results so far, in the form of a suggested preliminary definition of rationality that is sufficiently general to be applicable in all circumstances. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Beitrag zu einer allgemeinen Definition des rationalen Handelns In den letzten Jahren ist ein zunehmendes Interesse an den Grundlagen und den Problemen der rationalen Entschlussfassung und rationalen Handelns festzustellen. Ökonomen, Mathematiker, Statistiker, Logiker, Ingenieure und Philosophen haben ihre Anstrengungen auf verschiedene Phasen des allgemeinen Problems des Rationalen gerichtet. Die vorliegende Studie macht den Versuch einer vorläufigen Synthese der bisherigen grundlegenden Ergebnisse in Form einer vorläufigen Definition des Rationalen, die genügend allgemein ist, um unter jeglichen Bedingungen anwendbar zu sein. RÉSUMÉ Recherche ď une définition générate de ľ ction rationnelle. Durant ces dernières années, ľ intéret s'est fortement accru pour les principes et les problèmes relatifs à la décision rationnelle et àľ action rationnelle. Des économistes, des mathématiciens, des statisticiens, des logiciens, des ingénieurs et des philosophes ont concentrés leurs efforts sur les différentes phases du probléme général de la rationalité. La présente étude constitue un essai de synthèse provisoire des résultats fondamentaux obtenus jusqu'ici, sous la forme ď une définition préliminaire de la rationalité, par ailleurs suffisamment générale pour etre applicable dans toutes les circonstances. The general definition of rationality, to be usable for 'practical' decisionmaking, must take full cognizance of each of the following characteristics of the 'real' world, at least: the time-dimension of action and of the consequences of the action; the multitudinous side-effects of an action; the inevitable uncertainty of the 'actor' in connection with the alternatives of action open to him and the consequences of each of these; the costs of information-gathering; the costs of performing logical operations; the variety of the value-criteria of different actors; the changes in the value-criteria of any given actor over time; and the 'tastes' of the actor in relation to time-preference, risk-taking, logical processes, and the facing of uncertainty. The definition of rationality should specify the course of action which, in the light of all these factors, is the 'best' one. The present suggested definition outlines a 'rational' procedure for choosing one from among the set of all known possible actions, where the word 'action' refers to a particular time-sequence of (a) acting (in the usual sense), (b) information-gathering, and (c) logical analysis. The procedure consists, roughly, of these four steps: (1) the specification of the set of known possible actions; (2) the determination, for each of the actions, and using all available relevant information, of the set of all possible consequences of that action and their respective probabilities; (3) the evaluation, in the light of the relevant value-criteria, of each of the possible consequences of each of the possible actions; and (4) the derivation from (3) of the 'correct' action to be adopted. In carrying out these steps we employ a logical construction patterned after those of Carnap, Hempel and Oppenheim. For the sake of greater understandability, the definition is presented in two stages. The appendix to this paper contains a (grossly oversimplified) illustration of the application of the definition. Die allgemeine Definition des Rationalen - soil sie für praktische Entschlüsse verwendbar sein - muss zumindest folgende Charakteristika der 'realen' Welt voll berücksichtigen: die Zeitdimension einer Handlung und der Konsequenzen der Handlung; die zahlreichen Nebenwirkungen einer Handlung; die unvermeidliche Ungewissheit des Handelnden mit Bezug auf die ihm offenstehenden alternativen Handlungen und auf die Folgen jeder dieser Handlungen; die Kosten zusätzlicher Information; die Kosten des logischen Vorgehens; die Mannigfaltigkeit der Wertkriterien der verschiedenen Handelnden; die Rnderungen in den Wertkriterien eines Handelnden im Zeitverlauf; die Einstellung des Handelnden hinsichtlich Zeitpräferenz, Risikobereitschaft, logische Verfahren und Ungewissheit. Die Definition des Rationalen sollte jenen Ablauf des Handelns aufzeigen, der im Lichte aller dieser Faktoren der 'beste' ist. Die hier vorgeschlagene Definition skizziert ein 'rationales Verfahren für die Wahl einer Handlung unter all den bekannten möglichen Handlungen, wobei das Wort 'Handlung' sich auf eine besondere Zeitfolge von Handeln (im üblichen Sinn), Information und logischer Analyse bezieht. Das Verfahren besteht, grob gesprochen, in folgenden vier Schritten: I. Spezifikation der bekannten möglichen Handlungen; 2. Bestimmung aller möglichen Folgen und der Wahrscheinlichkeit dieser Folgen für jede der Handlungen, unter Verwendung aller verfügbaren relevanten Informationen; 3. Wertbestimmung jeder möglichen Folge von jeder der möglichen Handlungen auf Grund der relevanten Wertkriterien; und 4. Ableitung der 'richtigen' vorzunehmenden Handlung aus 3. Bei der Ausführung dieser Schritte wird eine logische Konstruktion verwendet nach dem Muster von Carnap, Hempel und Oppenheim. Im Interesse einer grössern Verständlichkeit wird die Definition in zwei Stufen entwickelt. Der Anhang enthält eine (stark vereinfachte) Illustration über die Anwendung der Definition. Une définition générale de la rationalité - pour qu'elle soit utilisable pour des decisions pratiques - doit pour le moins tenir pleinement compte de chacune des caractéristiques suivantes du monde 'réel': la durée de ľ action et des conséquences de ľ action; la multitude des effets connexes ď une action; ľ inévitable incertitude de celui qui agit en ce qui concerne les alternatives qui s'offrent à lui et les conséquences de chacune de ces actions; le coǔt des informations complémentaires; le coǔt de ľ exécution logique des opérations; la diversite des criteres-valeur, suivant l'opinion de ceux qui agissent; les modifications dans le temps des critères-valeur ď un exécutant donné; la préférence que marque celui qui agit quant au temps, au risque, à la procédure logique et àľ incertitude. La définition de la rationalité devrait spécifier le déroulement de ľ action, qui, à la lumière de tous ces facteurs, apparaǐt comme 'la meilleure'. La définition proposée ici esquisse une procédure rationnelle pour le choix ď une action parmi toutes les actions reconnues possibles; en ľ occurrence, le mot action se rapporte à une suite chronologique a) ď actions (au sens usuel), b) ď informations et c) ď analyses logiques. Grosso modo, le processus comprend les quatre étapes suivantes: I° la spécification des actions connues possibles; 2° la détermination pour chacune des actions, et en utilisant toutes les informations disponibles entrant en ligne de compte, de toutes les conséquences possibles et de leurs probabilityés respectives; 3oévaluation, à la lumière des critères-valeur entrant en ligne de compte, de chacune des conséquences possibles de chacune des actions possibles; et 4o la déduction de 3o de ľ action 'correcte'à exécuter. En exposant ces étapes, ľ auteur utilise une construction logique calquée sur celles de Carnap, Hempel et Oppenheim. Afin ď etre mieux compréhensible, la définition est présentée en deux paliers. Ľ annexe à cet article contient un exemple (considérablement simplifyé) de ľ application de la définition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article reports that the emergence of modern India as the great neutral and middle-of the- way state in international affairs has somewhat obscured the contribution in the field of economic development which this great country is making. India's Five Year Plan is based on a middle-of-the-road economic philosophy. It views the economy as divided into a public and private sector which share economic activity as equals. Springing from forces deep in the culture of India, this economic philosophy stresses the partnership of public and private sectors, working together in harmony. Moreover, the plan also conceives of "numerous points of contact and interaction between the two sectors" and units worked on the principal of joint participation." In line with this thinking, in the ground between the two sectors, India has made use of some interesting politico-economic devices. The world of the nineteenth century drew a sharp distinction between business and government. Mixed enterprise is treated by many Western writers, especially in the Anglo-Saxon countries, as simply a vague case of nationalized industry, not essentially different from the case where the public authority held all claims to ownership.

The article presents commentary on the address "Long-Term Trends in the Financing of Regulated Industries, 1870-1950," by Melville J. Ulmer, "Trends in Capital Formation and Financing in Agriculture," by Alvin S. Tostlebee, and Sergei Dobrovolsky's "Capital Formation and Financing Trends in Manufacturing and Mining, 1900-1953," all included within the issue addressing the development of the U.S. capital market. The application of the historical data to the development of other countries is discussed, outlining implications of U.S. economic history on general financial theory.

The article discusses the importance of the acceleration of development for the underdeveloped economies. Topics mentioned include the concept of free economic system, the individual ownership of production in free economy and the well-functioning system and operational complex of the intermediary institutions.

Copyright of Kyklos is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on the process of economic growth and distribution in the Middle East. Most likely there is not a precise relationship between the distributive pattern and the rate at which an economy is progressing. Yet there is a strong presumption that some degree of inequality in the distribution of wealth and income is necessary if there is to be an adequate flow of net investment. Traditional discussion concerning the need for the receipt, or at least the promise, of large returns as a pre-condition to the initiation of investment projects, invariably has concentrated attention on the connection between expected profits and capital formation. The post-war writings on underdeveloped countries attributed the existence of poverty and low productivity to a scarcity of capital, to the lack of an entrepreneurial class, and to institutional obstacles. It is extremely difficult to say with certainty why the landed class in underdeveloped areas seldom invest their savings in domestic enterprises. It is easier to point out the manner in which they do spend their "surplus" income.

Serge Chlepner. Cent ans d'histoire sociale en Belgique. Institut Solvay. Bruxelles 1956. Walter Galenson. Labor Productivity in Soviet and American Industry. New York 1955. Columbia University Press.264 p. $5.50. Bruno Gleitze. Ostdeutsche Wirtschuft. Industrielle Standorte und volkswirtschaftliche Kapazitäten des ungeteilten Deutschland. Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (Institut für Konjunkturforschung). Berlin 1956. Duncker & Humblot. 239 S. dm 24.-. Benvenuto Griziotti. Studi di scienza delle jinanze e diritto jinanziario, Vol. i and Vol. ii. Milano 1956. Giuffré. 52 I and 585 p. Lit. 3,000 per volume. 3,000 per volume. Walter Adolf Jöhr. Schweizerische Kreditanstalt 1856-1956. Hg. von der Schweizerischen Kreditanstalt. Zürich 1956. 537 S. W. D. Lamont. The Value Judgement. Edinburgh 1955. University Press. 350 p. 25s. C . Wright Mills. The Power Elite. New York 1956. Oxford University Press. 423 p. $ 6.00. Helmut Reichardt. Augustin A . Cournot-Sein Beitrag zur exakten Wirtschaftswissenschaft. Tübingen 1955. Mohr (Siebeck). 128 S. dm 12.80. Dennis H . Robertson. Economic Commentaries. London 1956. Staples. 174p. 16s. Lawrence H. Seltzer. Interest as a Source of Personal Income and Tax Revenue. National Bureau of Economic Research. New York 1955. 82 p. $ 1.25. Brinley Thomas. Migration and Ecomic Growth. (Economic and Social Studies Vol. xii, National Institute of Economic and Social Research.) London 1954. Cambridge University Press. 387 p. 42s. Alfred Weber (in Verbindung mit Herbert von Borch, Nicolaus Sombart, Hanno Kesting, Gräfin Leonore Lichnowsky, Heinz Markmann, Götz Roth, Erwin Faul, Hans-Joachim Arndt, Heinz Hund). Einführung in die Soziologie. München 1955. Piper. 526 S. Kart. dm 9.80, Lw. dm 12.80. L'Europe face à ses besoins croissants en énergie. Rapport préparé par un groupe d'experts, publié par l'O. E. C. E. Paris 1956. 131 S. ffr. 400 ($ 1.25). Oxford Regional Atlas: The U. S. S. R. and Eastern Europe. Prepared by the Economist Intelligence Unit and the Cartographic Department of the Clarendon Press. London 1956. Oxford University Press, 134 p. 42s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines financial problems in underdeveloped countries and various conflicts associated with financing development programs in these regions. Developing an economy is more complex than simply incorporating a few businesses using modern methods of production. If economic development is to be meaningful, it must also have a change in attitudes towards production, consumption, saving and investment. Economic development needs social values that encourage business and technological innovations, while simultaneously causing expansion and growth. The author states that a major conflict for improved development is sociological.

The article focuses on some of the problems developing countries face as it pertains to central banking. This study will briefly survey the role, problems, and the latency of central banks in developing countries, with some discussion of the methodology and techniques of monetary policy that have been utilized. In order to keep the paper's content manageable, no attention will be given to foreign exchange and payment policies, although these are taken care of by the central bank and are a significant aspect of monetary theory.

This article presents a discussion of E. M. Bernstein's paper about the financial problems of economic development. Bernstein discusses five facets of this problem: to decrease the size of the development program, to energize the inflow of foreign capital, to encourage domestic savings, to gather together the available resources, and to allocate the resources available to the private sector in a way that will stimulate the greatest increase in production. The author believes that this analysis leaves no room for argument.

The article presents a discussion of papers written by Norris Johnson and John Scanlon. These authors discuss economic forecasting from 1957 to 1967. Particular attention is given to how the demand for capital funds are crowding the supply during most of this period but not in such a manner as to give rise to major capital shortages. The author states that there is no proof positive way of assessing the reliability of the assumptions made in this paper or their implications for the adequacy of funds.

The article presents a discussion of the research paper by Simon Kuznets on the difficulty of making an orderly pattern of long-term change and how it lies in the absence of an effective theory or even of a working hypothesis. The paper deals with economic forecasting. The reviewer presents an analogy to gross national product forecasting. Examined is the rise of the gross national product in 1953 and what it is forecasted to be in 1965. Also commented on is the annual capital increase in real Gross National Product.

The article discusses the differential theory of rent, inseparably associated with the economist David Ricardo. This theory afforded Ricardo a tool for demonstrating the progressive redistribution of income in favor of the landlord in the process of economic development. This phenomenon he viewed with alarm since the capitalist class was considered the mainspring of economic progress. Concomitantly, Ricardo developed the now fundamental proposition that a tax on rent cannot be shifted. Yet he did not advocate such a tax. Instead he devoted his energies to repeal of the Corn Laws which he considered as raising rents unduly. Ricardo believed subjecting land-rent to taxation would misallocate resources as the tax would lower the price of land, and because of the indefinite nature and uncertain risk of this tax, land would thus become a fit choice for speculation, falling in the hands of those who possess more the qualities of a gambler, than the qualities of the sobers minded proprietor, who is likely to employ his land to the greatest advantage.

In this article the author focuses on some fundamental questions related to economic education. On of the fundamental questions discussed here is, whether an income derived from man-made equipment that cannot come into existence at all unless there is both labor and saving, is on no stronger an ethical and social utility basis than is an income one can receive just because others must pay him for his 'permission to work on and to live on the earth, in those locations made productive and desirable because of geological forces and community development, and for his permission to withdraw fuels and minerals from the earth's subsoil deposits. The author illustrates his point by referring to the case of New York. New York is situated on a great natural harbor. If there were none to use the harbor except a few pioneer farmers on Manhattan Island trading their surplus produce for the textiles and other goods of Europe, landing space for a very few boats or perhaps for a single one would be all that would be needed. Today there is needed in New York City a large population to meet the requirements of this great tributary country.

This article focuses on the social history of Great Britain. The author remarks that the second Boer war was a disaster for Great Britain. She might have recovered from its consequences if Campbell-Bannerman had been spared for a few more years. The last months of the British Queen Victoria's long reign were clouded and dreary. The change, in three or four years, from the rejoicings of 1897 was so startling that shrewd parliamentarians. It was then she realized, at first reluctantly, that her trade in the markets of the world was threatened by the growth of American and German industries. The cross purposes of the U.S., Germany and Great Britain for this period are so patent in the records that a reflective reader might ask if their spokesmen knew from one day to another what new shift would cancel out the aim of yesterday. While Great Britain was smarting under the affliction of the war in South Africa, the work of peaceful penetration was going on apace in Morocco. Both Great Britain and Germany maintained that their interests in Morocco were commercial only and, although English and German individuals were represented upon the directorates of the great concessionaire companies, they were in no way acting in the interests of their governments.

The article focuses on the preparations for economic growth in Japan. The author remarks that while the main outlines of Japanese economic development during the period since the Restoration are now rather firmly blocked out, current interest in comparative development during the pre-take-off period of the growth process makes it worthwhile to re-examine the previous era, the Japanese Tokugawa period. According to him the recognition of the preparatory role of Tokugawa is seldom perceived and certainly not stressed in previous studies. Some notion of the importance of Tokugawa glimmered in the literature for years. In this article the author seeks to move away from the ambivalent treatment of Tokugawa and to assemble some of the more important factors indicating the high economic levels attained by Japan in the Tokugawa period which prepared her for the take-off of 1868. He focuses on the covering materials on population, agriculture, production, institutional changes effecting savings and growth potentials, manufacturing and trade, both internal and external.

This article presents books. Some of them are, "The Collective Dream in Art," by W. Abell, "Communities and Their Development," by T.R. Batten, "Social Change in the South Pacific," by E. Beaglehole, "Studies in Economic Development," by A. Bonne, "Schism and Continuity in an African Society," by V.W. Turner, "The Feeling of Superiority and Anxiety-Superior," by E.L. Remits, "Some Notes on Definitions in Empirical Science," by T.T. Segerstedt, "Some Applications of Behavioral Research," by R. Linkert and "Human and Social Impact of Technological Change in Pakistan," by A.F.A. Husain.

"Community development" is derived and possibly takes its name from programs and activities often thought of as community organization as well as more ambitious schemes of economic development. Theoretical formulations are possible on two levels: that of the practitioner, which is largely administrative and action-oriented in character, and that of the social scientist, which is largely conceptual in nature. Four of the current ways of viewing community development are: first, as a process, with a focus upon sequences of interaction; second, as a method, as a means to an end; third, as a program, consisting of content as well as procedures; fourth, as a movement, involving personal commitment and an emotional dynamic. For each of these approaches various fields of sociology have significant contributions to make. Different theoretical implications are also determined by the geographical level (local, regional, national) at which community development is viewed as well as by the types of functionaries which are relied upon to promote community development programs. These are discussed with reference to existing sociological fields of inquiry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The elements of a social system are also, in a sense, the components of change. The Loomis and Beegle listing of "elements" is adopted here: end, norm, status-role, power, rank, sanction, facility, and territoriality. Suggested applications to Pakistanian culture of observed situations and practices in the United States are discussed with respect to their involvement of these designated components. The changes proposed relate to the "dignity of labor," use of mosques, volunteer leadership, water-storage ponds, developing "village businessmen," family planning, kitchen improvement, land division, health education, and farm supply co-operatives. The purpose of the discussion is to illustrate and emphasize the crucial importance of social components in whatever changes are proposed under the aegis of "community development." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training for community development is designed to prepare all categories of program participants for their specific roles in a national development scheme. One of the neglected areas of training at present is helping the higher echelons of program administrators with supervisory skills compatible with community development theory. Current rural development programs emphasize teaching villagers to formalize local initiative into group action for the improvement of living. Rural sociologists have a unique opportunity to make international contributions that will be helpful in planning the organizational structure for field operations, in establishing program evaluation plans and in developing training programs, particularly those phases of training that deal with the group process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social action is now receiving much emphasis in programs of community development. Hence, a sociological analysis of the process is both necessary and timely. In this paper a design for such an analysis is presented. It involves three aspects of the action process: (1) initiation, (2) legitimation, and (3) execution of the proposed action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the International Finance Corp. The International Monetary Fund was intended to provide a systematic basis for the initial establishment of exchange rates after the war and for resetting of such rates when necessary. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was designed to increase the supply of long-term foreign investment capital available for reconstructing war-torn economies and for developing underdeveloped areas. An awareness of the limitations faced by the International Bank in extending developmental credit to private enterprise encouraged the United States International Development Advisory Board, in March 1951, to propose that an International Finance Corp. be established as an entity separate from but affiliated with the Bank. Following this proposal, in August 1951, the United Nations Economic and Social Council passed a resolution which requested that the Bank submit to It a report on the contributions to economic development which could be made by an International Finance Corp. is designed to invest in productive private enterprises in the territories of its members, and it will not invest in government-owned and operated enterprises, though it may invest in an undertaking in which some public funds have been invested if the undertaking is basically private in nature.

The article explains that the low values of the output-capital ratio and the saving-income ratio in many of the underdeveloped countries are due, inter-alia, to the imperfect organization of the capital markets. The social cost of obtaining investment resources from outside is not only the interest rate charged by the financial institutions of the money and capital market, but it also includes the whole complex of social and psychological resistances to seeking outside funds. The importance of retaining control has already been mentioned. Allied to it is the distrust of outside managers, the fear of loss of face and bankruptcy and other factors. Moreover, in the underdeveloped countries, it may be difficult if not impossible to obtain funds for a number of purposes that may appear both profitable and legitimate to the individual. In the underdeveloped countries, the variance in the distribution of interest rates is larger than in the advanced countries. In many countries, the rates of interest prevailing in the money market for certain limited purposes compare favorably with those obtaining in much more advanced countries. On the other hand, capital for other purposes, particularly those connected with the acquisition of durable assets, is either completely unavailable or available only on prohibitive terms. Moreover, the interest rates announced by the existing institutions obscure the existence of much higher rates prevailing outside the orthodox banking and financial institutions.

The article focuses on the economic development of a self-governing and a non-self-governing country. The article presents a study that consists of 198 political entities, classified into 88 self-governing entities and 110 non-self-governing political entities. The various self-governing political entities range in size from a population of about 5,000 to 400,000,000, the non-self governing political entities vary from a population of less than 1,000 to about 30,000,000. Results of the study reveal that readily reveals that the index of commercial energy production and the index of grain and food production are the two indices most efficiently discriminating between self-governing and non-self-governing political entities. Careful scrutiny of additional data may show that development is of great importance if a non-self-governing entity is to attempt effectively to gain self-government either through negotiation with controlling self-governing powers or through force of arms. A forthcoming series of articles will deal with the relation of development to unrest in various regions of the world.

The article discusses the method of control of capital issues adopted by Great Britain. The author states that an increasing number of economists have focused their interest on the problems associated with secular acceleration. These problems include a long-run tendency for planned investment to exceed planned savings, rather than on the main concern of the 1930's, which was secular stagnation. The article also discusses the scope of controls, the argument of the "bonus-issue," and problems with hiring and purchasing.

The article focuses on the land use in the Near East. In Lebanon, one can see in a relatively circumscribed area a kind of recapitulation of several millennia of agricultural development, and practices which make use of the most modern as well as of age-old techniques. A caterpillar tractor is used to pull gang plows within a stone's throw of a farmer who is still driving oxen round an ancient threshing floor to trample out the grain, just as his forefathers did for ages past There are curious blends of primitive and modern techniques. At Zahle, in the Bequaa plain of Lebanon, the old threshing sleds were still in use on the threshing floors but they were pulled not by oxen but by a tractor. Farming of these mountain slopes is a perpetual battle against the elements. Unless infinite care is taken, the rain and snow storms of winter will remove every trace of soil, which can be held in place only by a complex system of terraces. Many mountain slopes are completely made over. For thousands of vertical feet, every horizontal field a yard wide has its equivalent yard or more of perpendicular wall. The entire mountainside has been so completely made over that it is hard to imagine what the original landscape was like. This is indeed a mature cultural landscape.

The article focuses on economic policies of Brigham Young, second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. In this organization of society, it was natural that Brigham Young should abhor money and financiers. He thought they were liars and cheats. Young early appreciated the need for a circulating medium. At first, blankets, grains, and seeds were used for currency, later gold dust and finally bank bills. From the beginning, it was Brigham Young's policy to foster colonization outside of Utah. Commanding his people like an army officer, he sent groups to occupy fertile valleys in the intermountain region. Each group was carefully planned so as to include the proper share of mechanics and specialists. This policy gave the Church a greater feeling of cooperation and what is of far more significance to Utah economic development, it gave the Mormons the best real estate in the mountain territory. Young pursued a vigorous immigration policy. His missionaries were sent over the world. On October 16, 1849, the Perpetual Immigration Fund was organized. $5,000 was raised the first year to be used as loans for aiding members to move from Europe to the U.S.

This article presents information on several books and articles, published in various journals related to international trade. The article "The Far Far East," published in the journal "Fortune," is a survey of business in the Far East. The book "Indian Administration," written by Asok Chandna. The article "The Cotton Industry of Japan," is a history of the cotton industry of Japan as well as an analysis of its present day capital structure, management labor problems, controls, foreign trade and competition. The article "Conditions for Economic Progress," is an attempt to predict Australia's future economic growth and problems based on current and predicted population trends and present economic development. The article "Thailand: A Market Study," published in the journal "International Trade Review," gives geographic, economic, and cultural background on Thailand with some practical information on exchange controls, credit terms, and customs regulations.

The article discusses the policy acceptance in the U.S. of reliance on automatic fiscal stabilizers. The author provides a history of previous fiscal stabilizer studies. The author states that it is necessary to illustrate the potential incompatibility of an annually balanced budget that has economic stability. The article also discusses institutional changes which made automatic fiscal stabilizers more important and the acceptance of automatic fiscal stabilizers as part of government policy. An analysis of how the U.S. executive and legislative branch is involved is also provided.

The article presents a reference guide for economic development and aid. Names of publishers of books and the addresses of periodicals are provided to aid readers. Listings include only basic material, not news items or reports of transitory significance. "Economic Development: Principles, Problems and Policies," By Benjamin Higgins, discusses how to launch the growth of the economies of underdeveloped countries and how to raise national income in advanced one. Case studies of Lybia. India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Mexico and Italy are included in it. "International Specialization and the Concept of Balanced Growth: Comment," by Ronald Findlay, is a critique of an article in the May 1958 issue of the "Quarterly Journal," by John Sheahan. "Partnership for Progress: International Technical Cooperation," discusses the economic, political, and administrative aspects of international technical cooperation. "The Image of the Past and Economic Backgrounds," by A.A. Pepelasis, is a study of the ways in which pride in tradition can hold back a country economically, with Greece used as a case in point.

The article presents a reference guide for monetary affairs. Names of publishers of books and the addresses of periodicals are provided to aid readers. Listings include only basic material, not news items or reports of transitory significance. "Foreign Trade and Finance: Essays in International Economic Equilibrium and Adjustment," is written by William R. Allen and Clark Lee Allen. Part I of "Balance of Payments and Economic Growth," by John M. Letiche, presents a critical review of current theoretical explanations of the international balancing process. Part II is an application of this theoretical analysis to particular issues of economic development. "Exchange Stabilization Funds," by Mordechai E. Kreinin is an abstract of a doctoral thesis completed at the University of Michigan in 1954. In "International Financial Transactions and Business Cycles," by Oskar Morgenstern, the interaction of international money markets and the spread of business cycles in the periods of 1879-1914 and 1919-1938 are studied.

The article presents a reference guide for communist economic relations. Names of publishers of books and the addresses of periodicals are provided to aid readers. Listings include only basic material, not news items or reports of transitory significance. "The Economy, Liberty and the States," by Calvin B. Hoover, analyzes the economic systems of the West and of Russia and her satellites. "Can Free Enterprise and State Trading Coexist in International Commerce?" by Wolfgang Friedmann, discusses the degree of freedom and control in the foreign trade of several countries and how this limits trade to dealings within closely-knit groups of like-minded nations. "The Challenge of Soviet Power," by Allen W. Dulles, discusses the military, economic, and subversive threats of the U.S.S.R. "Economic Comparison: USA And USSR," presents comparisons on population and area, basic production, exports, living levels and military strength, of the two nations. In "Soviet Trade and Canadian Business," by J.G. Myers, many statistics are given to show the present and possible future effects of Soviet expansion into foreign trade on Canada's internal economy and external trade.

The article presents a reference guide for Western Hemisphere. Names of publishers of books and the addresses of periodicals are provided to aid readers. Listings include only basic material, not news items or reports of transitory significance. "The Canadian and American Companies Developing Canada's Enormous Ore Resources," by John Lind, is a study of U.S. and Canadian iron resources and the exploitation of them. "Canada in World Affairs: From UN to NATO, 1946-1949," is the fifth volume in a series concerning Canada's participation in world affairs. "Power in New Brunswick," by W.A. Dixon, is a description of new power developments. "Canada's Economic Development, 1867-1953," by O.J. Firestone, is a history and analysis of Canada's economy. "Canada's Economic Prospects," by Simon Kuznets, is a review of the Final Report of the Royal Commission on Canada's Economic Prospects. In 1958 Economic Survey of Europe," included are studies of the relationship between economic expansion and balances of payments in Western European countries and consumption trends and structures in Europe.