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In 2011, the Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Combating the Sexual Abuse, Sexual Exploitation of Children and Child Pornography was adopted, repealing and updating the 2004 Framework Decision on this topic. The much debated Article 25 of this proposal requires Member States to ensure the prompt removal of child pornography websites hosted in their territory and to endeavor to obtain the removal of such websites hosted outside their territory. It also leaves the option for Member States, subject to several safeguards, to block access to such websites to users within their territory. Both these policy choices are highly controversial and much debated, both at the level of the European Union and within Member States. This article analyzes both mechanisms, describing them from a technical as well as a legal point of view, in order to provide more clarity as to the advantages and drawbacks of these policy options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grouping behaviours ( e.g. schooling, shoaling and swarming) are commonly explicated through adaptive hypotheses such as protection against predation, access to mates or improved foraging. However, the hypothesis that aggregation can result from manipulation by parasites to increase their transmission has never been demonstrated. We investigated this hypothesis using natural populations of two crustacean hosts ( Artemia franciscana and Artemia parthenogenetica) infected with one cestode and two microsporidian parasites. We found that swarming propensity increased in cestode-infected hosts and that red colour intensity was higher in swarming compared with non-swarming infected hosts. These effects likely result in increased cestode transmission to its final avian host. Furthermore, we found that microsporidian-infected hosts had both increased swarming propensity and surfacing behaviour. Finally, we demonstrated using experimental infections that these concurrent manipulations result in increased spore transmission to new hosts. Hence, this study suggests that parasites can play a prominent role in host grouping behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing role of alternative modes of regulation (self- and co-regulation) gives rise to major questions about regulatory choice between available governance mechanisms. Strategic policy instruments such as regulatory impact assessment guidelines (RIA) typically suggest assessing the suitability of alternative modes of regulation but they hardly specify assessment criteria. This article identifies contextual factors that should be included in any effort to predict when alternative regulatory arrangements are likely to emerge and to be effective. To demonstrate the value of the approach, it is applied to an analysis of self-regulation in the domain of content-rating in the audiovisual industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]