Search

Made available in DSpace on 2022-05-01T08:45:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-11-01 Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) populations are decreasing throughout their range. We tested a methodology for individual identification using camera records and fur patterns to estimate the giant anteater population in a protected area of the Brazilian Cerrado. We identified 9 adult individuals and successfully modeled population abundance and density. Our models estimated an adult population of 16.8 (range = 15–19) giant anteaters through a mark-resight approach and 12.5 individuals (range = 9.7–25.5) through a spatially explicit capture-recapture approach. Density estimates were 0.3–0.4 animals/km2. Using these estimates, we performed a population viability analysis to understand and predict this population's future. We modeled scenarios without direct effects and models simulating a double carrying capacity and the supplementation and removal of individuals. Even in the more optimistic scenarios, the population is predicted to decreases over time, with ≤8 individuals remaining in 100 years. Given the study area surroundings, realistic models include removals of giant anteaters in the population. Identification of giant anteaters using cameras can inspire conservationists to acquire population data throughout its distribution and obtain population trends to evaluate the species' conservation status. Individual identification of giant anteaters using a motion-sensitive camera design is feasible, opens new avenues for population analyses, and allows the study of population trends in difficult regions. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia e Evolução Universidade Federal de Goiás Câmpus Samambaia Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Instituto de Biociências Letras e Ciências Exatas Instituto de Conservação de Animais Silvestres, 142 Afonso Lino Barbosa Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biodiversidade Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) Instituto de Biociências Letras e Ciências Exatas FAPESP: 2013/04957-8 FAPESP: 2013/18526-9

Habitat loss is the main threat to biodiversity conservation worldwide. Some species may be particularly susceptible to the effects of fragmentation and the isolation of populations. The impacts of human activity on wild animal populations may be understood through relationships between individual genetic data and spatial landscape variables, particularly when considering local population dynamics influenced by fragmented habitats. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the population structure and genetic diversity of the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) using an individual sampling scheme (ISS) on a regional geographic scale. Data were collected from 41 specimens from twenty different locations in São Paulo State, Brazil, and six polymorphic microsatellite loci were genotyped. Our results indicate that barriers to gene flow exist and have segregated individuals of the farther away areas into two spatially structured clusters. The populations were also found to have high genetic diversity. The experimental sampling approach used herein enabled an analysis of the population dynamics of the giant anteater on a regional scale, as well as the identification of priority populations for genetic resource conservation for this species. The results reflect the need for adequate management plans. The efficacy of the sampling scheme may vary based on the study model used, but we argue that the use of an ISS combined with suitable molecular markers and statistical methods may serve as an important tool for initial analyses of threatened or vulnerable species, particularly in anthropized regions where populations are small or hard to characterize., Habitat loss is the main threat to biodiversity conservation worldwide, and some species may be particularly susceptible to the effects of fragmentation and the isolation of populations. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the population structure and genetic diversity of the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) using an individual sampling scheme (ISS) on a regional geographic scale in São Paulo State, Brazil. Our results indicate that barriers to gene flow exist, and the populations present high genetic diversity, which reflects the importance of these populations and the necessity of immediate conservation actions.

Canine morbillivirus, also known as canine distemper virus (CDV), induces a contagious multisystemic disease caused by an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus within the family Paramyxoviridae. CDV replicates readily in epithelial, nerve and lymphoid tissues; it is excreted in urine, feces, saliva, oral and nasal discharge; and its major route of entry for infection is through the respiratory system. Although the virus was originally believed to infect domestic dogs, new studies have shown that it can also naturally or experimentally infect non‐domestic hosts. A recent blood test performed on a giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) found Lentz inclusions in the animal's leucocytes. A rapid CDV test, an RT‐PCR assay and pathology findings confirmed this report of canine morbillivirus in this species, which corresponds to the second report of CDV infection in the order Pilosa, family Myrmecophagidae in central west Brazil., This article is the first report of canine morbillivirus infection in a Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).The disease was confirmed through samples collected from the animal after the visualization of Lents corpuscles inside leucocytes during blood count cells.

The structure of the heart and the coronary blood supply of wild mammals, including that of threatened species, are poorly understood. This study set out to describe the heart, aortic arch branching and coronary distribution of Myrmecophaga tridactyla, and to compare it with anatomical descriptions of other Xenarthra given elsewhere. Eight adult giant anteater cadaveric specimens were used in this study. Morphological features of the heart and coronary blood supply were examined using gross dissection as well as latex and cast preparations. The heart lied in the median plane of the thoracic cavity and corresponded to a cone-shape structure with a rounded apex facing left. The internal chambers of the heart comprised the same structures described in other mammals. Two different patterns of coronary blood supply were observed in the giant anteater. Hence, it can be concluded that the three species of Xenarthra share the same heart structure described in other mammals to date. Aortic arch branches and variations in coronary blood supply in this study have been described in carnivores, particularly the cat and the galea. The branching pattern of the coronary artery differed from that of other mammals and may be specific to Myrmecophaga tridactyla. Morphological description of the heart of the giant anteater and comparison with morphological features of other mammals, especially Xenarthra, may assist in phylogenetic analysis and provide significant contributions to clinical anatomy of practical procedures.

The giant anteater (Mymercophaga tridactyla) is a highly specialized insectivore for which nutrient requirements are not clearly established, making diet formulation challenging for this species. Multiple clinical reports suggest anteaters have an obligate dietary taurine (TAU) requirement. Sulphur amino acid (SAA) metabolism in adult anteaters was evaluated using noninvasive methods to measure TAU synthesis potential from dietary methionine (MET) and a basal diet containing on a dry matter (DM) basis 1.7 mg TAU/kg DM and 6.9 g MET/kg DM. Urinary equilibrium times for TAU excretion were determined by feeding the basal diet with or without 1.5 g/kg DM supplemental TAU (crossover design; n = 4). Effects of supplemental dietary TAU (1.7, 2.0, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3 g/kg DM) or MET (6.9, 9.0, 11.2 g/kg DM) on urinary TAU were evaluated (randomized block trials; n = 5 or 4 respectively). All urinary values (TAU, MET, unbound inorganic sulphate) were normalized to creatinine (CRT). Results indicate urinary TAU equilibrium in anteaters requires at least 2 weeks of feeding. Urinary ratio of TAU to CRT (TAU:CRT) increased as dietary TAU content increased from 1.7 to 3.0 g/kg DM, consistent with renal homoeostatic modulation of TAU excretion. Our data indicate that TAU needs were met by TAU in the basal diet or by de novo synthesis. Supplemental MET resulted in ~five- to eightfold increases in urinary TAU:CRT excretion, further supporting existence of mechanisms for TAU synthesis from dietary SAA in anteaters. Adult anteaters appear able to synthesize TAU when diets contain adequate SAA, but dietary TAU may be critical if protein intakes are low or of poor quality. This study may provide guidance on choice of domestic canids vs. felids as suitable physiologic models for improved nutrition in giant anteaters, and also outlines a noninvasive method for assessing TAU status/metabolism that may be useful across species.

Considering the physiological importance of the pancreas as an endocrine and exocrine organ, this study described the characteristics of the gross and microscopic morphology of this organ using 16 Myrmecophaga tridactyla individuals. The pancreas was located in the left antimere of the body, was pale in colour and exhibited an elongated shape with a central body and lobulated surface. It was positioned in the abdomen, following the curvatura ventriculi major of the stomach, and was attached to the initial portion of the duodenum. The corpus pancreatis was elongated and showed a caudal curvature of 45°. The pancreas exhibited a facies dorsalis (related to the spleen and stomach) and a facies ventralis (related to the renal capsule and intestine). Macroscopically, a craniodorsal, medial, and caudoventral regions were identified, in addition to the left lobe. Structurally, the organ exhibited two distinct parts: the first had exocrine characteristics, consisting of acini and ducts; the second, which was the endocrine portion, consisted of the pancreatic islets, which were located in the medial, caudoventral and left lobe regions. Ultrastructural analysis identified secretory vesicles containing zymogen granules, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum in pancreatic centroacinar cells. Morphological data on the anatomy of members of the Xenarthra have revealed important peculiarities of several organs and systems, adding great biological value to the representatives of this group. In addition, these studies significantly contribute not only to knowledge of the biology, taxonomy and, consequently, preservation of these animals but also to the discovery of new experimental models. Anat Rec, 300:1104-1113, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Giant anteaters (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) are among those mammals for which a particularly low metabolism has been reported. In order to verify presumably low requirements for energy, we used eight anteaters (two males, six females; aged 1-14 years; body mass between 46 and 64 kg) in a total of 64 individual trials, in which a variety of intake levels was achieved on various diets. Digestible energy (DE) intake was quantified by measuring food intake and faecal excretion and analysing representative samples for gross energy, and animals were weighed regularly. Maintenance DE requirements were calculated by regression analysis for the DE intake that corresponded to zero weight change. Differences between individuals were significant. Older anteaters (n = 3 animals aged 12-15 years in 29 trials) had lower relative requirements than younger ones (n = 5 animals aged 1-7 years in 35 trials); thus, giant anteaters resemble other mammals in which similar age-specific differences in energy requirements are known. However, estimated maintenance requirements were 347 kJ DE/kg(0.75)/day in the anteaters, which is low compared to the 460-580 kJ DE/kg(0.75)/day maintenance requirements of domestic dogs. The lack of knowledge that metabolic requirements are below the mammalian average could make species particularly susceptible to overfeeding, if amounts considered adequate for average mammals were provided. Non-scientific reports on comparatively fast growth rates and high body masses in captive giant anteaters as compared to free-ranging animals suggest that body mass development and feeding regimes in captivity should be further assessed.

Most protected areas are too small to sustain populations of wide-ranging mammals; thus, identification and conservation of high-quality habitat for those animals outside parks is often a high priority, particularly for regions where extensive land conversion is occurring. This is the case in the vicinity of Emas National Park, a small protected area in the Brazilian Cerrado. Over the last 40 years the native vegetation surrounding the park has been converted to agriculture, but the region still supports virtually all of the animals native to the area. We determined the effectiveness of scat-detection dogs in detecting presence of five species of mammals threatened with extinction by habitat loss: maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), puma (Puma concolor), jaguar (Panthera onca), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), and giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus). The probability of scat detection varied among the five species and among survey quadrats of different size, but was consistent across team, season, and year. The probability of occurrence, determined from the presence of scat, in a randomly selected site within the study area ranged from 0.14 for jaguars, which occur primarily in the forested areas of the park, to 0.91 for maned wolves, the most widely distributed species in our study area. Most occurrences of giant armadillos in the park were in open grasslands, but in the agricultural matrix they tended to occur in riparian woodlands. At least one target species occurred in every survey quadrat, and giant armadillos, jaguars, and maned wolves were more likely to be present in quadrats located inside than outside the park. The effort required for detection of scats was highest for the two felids. We were able to detect the presence for each of five wide-ranging species inside and outside the park and to assign occurrence probabilities to specific survey sites. Thus, scat dogs provide an effective survey tool for rare species even when accurate detection likelihoods are required. We believe the way we used scat-detection dogs to determine the presence of species can be applied to the detection of other mammalian species in other ecosystems.

There appears to be strong evidence supporting four major clades of placental mammals: (i) Afrotheria; (ii) Xenarthea; (iii) Euarchontoglires; and (iv) Laurasiathera. This is the first study in which the carbohydrates have been analyzed in the milks of Xenarthea. Our aim was to clarify whether the saccharides of giant anteater milk resemble those of other eutherian species, especially of the Asian elephant, which is one of the Afrotherea. We found that lactose is a dominant saccharide in this milk, as it is in that of most eutherians, and that the milk contains smaller amounts of oligosaccharides, whose structures were determined as Gal(α1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-N-acetylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Gc(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)Glc (6'-N-glycolylneuraminyllactose), Neu5Ac(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (LST c) and Neu5Gc(α2-6)Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc. This pattern of milk carbohydrates is rather close to that of the milks of other eutherian species. It is notable that the milk contained oligosaccharides with Neu5Gc residues but no oligosaccharides containing α(2-3) linked Neu5Ac residues such as Neu5Ac(α2-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc.

Members of the family Myrmecophagidae (i.e. anteaters) show a variety of anatomical and behavioural adaptations to deal with their low-energy diet; for example, they all have low body temperatures in comparison with other eutherian mammals. In this study, we investigated the tympanic membrane temperatures (Tmt) of two giant anteaters and three southern tamanduas, housed in captivity and exposed to natural climatic variations in temperature, using an infrared thermometer. Additionally, we measured external dorsal temperature (Td), air temperature (Ta), substrate temperature (Ts) and whether the subject was active or not. To understand the effect of time of day on these variables, we recorded them, on the hour, over four 24-h cycles for each animal during which the subjects were non-restrained within their enclosures. The results show that both giant anteaters and southern tamanduas allow their Tmt to reduce between 4.0 and 6.5 °C when they are sleeping. Furthermore, linear regressions between Tmt and Ta or Ts showed that the giant anteaters were much more affected by Ta and Ts than the southern tamanduas. Both species also showed higher Tmt when active (comparing subjects active and inactive at the same Ta). Both species appear to use shallow torpor during a normal 24-h cycle probably as a means to economize energy. The torpor in giant anteaters occurred during the night when asleep, whereas in the southern tamanduas it occurred at any time of day when asleep. The giant anteaters appeared to be more directly affected by environmental temperature than the southern tamanduas.

The purpose of this study was to correlate the activity and habitat use of a large and ecologically specialized mammal (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) with the time of day and minimum daily temperature in Brazil's Pantanal wetland. Seven giant anteaters were fitted with very high frequency (VHF) radio transmitters and monitored from March to December 2001. The animal's state of activity or rest, time and ambient temperature were recorded in different patches of the study site, which were covered by a mosaic of vegetation types and several ponds. Whenever a giant anteater was inside a forest patch, the temperature inside and outside of the patch was also recorded. The temperatures throughout the day were recorded by the meteorological station at the study site. The period of greatest activity of giant anteaters started at 18:00 h on hot days, but whenever the daily minimum temperature declined, the species' activity began earlier. Giant anteaters use predominantly forest habitats for rest and open habitats for activity. The forest patches work as a temperature buffer, because they are cooler than the matrix of open habitats during the hot hours of the day and warmer than the matrix during the cold hours. Although the giant anteater is known to be associated with open habitats, this study indicates the need of preserving forest patches for the conservation of this species.

Appeals to synapomorphic features of the wrist and hand in African apes, early hominins, and modern humans as evidence of knuckle-walking ancestry for the hominin lineage rely on accurate interpretations of those features as adaptations to knuckle-walking locomotion. Because Gorilla, Pan, and Homo share a relatively close common ancestor, the interpretation of such features is confounded somewhat by phylogeny. The study presented here examines the evolution of a similar locomotor regime in New World anteaters (order Xenarthra, family Myrmecophagidae) and uses the terrestrial giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) as a convergence test of adaptation for purported knuckle-walking features of the Hominidae. During the stance phase of locomotion, Myrmecophaga transmits loads through flexed digits and a vertical manus, with hyperextension occurring at the metacarpophalangeal joints of the weight-bearing rays. This differs from the locomotion of smaller, arboreal anteaters of outgroup genera Tamandua and Cyclopes that employ extended wrist postures during above-branch quadrupedality. A number of features shared by Myrmecophaga and Pan and Gorilla facilitate load transmission or limit extension, thereby stabilizing the wrist and hand during knuckle-walking, and distinguish these taxa from their respective outgroups. These traits are a distally extended dorsal ridge of the distal radius, proximal expansion of the nonarticular surface of the dorsal capitate, a pronounced articular ridge on the dorsal aspects of the load-bearing metacarpal heads, and metacarpal heads that are wider dorsally than volarly. Only the proximal expansion of the nonarticular area of the dorsal capitate distinguishes knuckle-walkers from digitigrade cercopithecids, but features shared with digitigrade primates might be adaptive to the use of a vertical manus of some sort in the stance phase of terrestrial locomotion. The appearance of capitate nonarticular expansion and the dorsal ridge of the distal radius in the hominin lineage might be indicative of a knuckle-walking ancestry for bipedal hominins if interpreted within the biomechanical and phylogenetic context of hominid locomotor evolution. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

To obtain data on home range, movements, activity and habitat use by giant anteaters Myrmecophaga tridactyla, seven animals were captured, radio-collared and monitored from March to December 2001 in a 104-km2 study area in the Pantanal wetland, Brazil. Four of five males used areas that covered 4.0–7.5 km2 (5.7±1.7 km2), and one of two females monitored occupied a larger area (11.9 km2) than the males, but none of the curves of cumulative area unequivocally reached the asymptote. Generally, there was considerable overlap among individual areas used. The home-range estimates were calculated using the 100% minimum convex polygon, and 95% adaptive kernel methods. The areas used by the giant anteaters in the Pantanal wetland were larger than home ranges of giant anteaters in the Serra da Canastra National Park, Brazil. The habitat types were generally used in the same order as they occurred in each home range. Two giant anteaters previously monitored with VHF radio-telemetry were subsequently tracked with a modified global positioning (GPS) system in different periods. The modified GPS acquired data on activity and habitat use for c. 9 days. Giant anteaters did not show a similar pattern of habitat use during the period of study using the modified GPS unit, but their activity patterns were similar. One of the ranges recorded over 9 days with this method was larger than the range obtained over 252 days by standard VHF radio-telemetry.

Fire is an important ecological factor in Cerrado vegetation of central Brazil, and in other savanna ecosystems. The effect of fire on the abundance of some Xenarthran mammal species Priodontes maximus Kerr, 1792 (giant armadillo), Euphractus sexcinctus Linnaeus, 1758 (yellow armadillo) and Myrmecophaga tridactyla Linnaeus, 1758 (giant anteater)) was studied at Reserva Xavante do Rio das Mortes, a 329 000 ha Xavante Indian reserve in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Track counts were used to compare the abundance of these mammals along seven burned and seven unburned transects, on seven occasions between August 1995 and August 1996. The number of tracks in burned and unburned areas did not differ. Xenarthrans probably use burned areas to obtain food resources, basically termites and ants. Xavante traditional fire hunts may reduce fuel accumulation and function as a mechanism to prevent more destructive fires. Fire management at Reserva Xavante is recommended because the burning system of Brazilian farmers is already influencing the Xavante community. Xavante traditional knowledge about fire could be an important instrument for this management.

The edentulous giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) ingests food using a slender, elongated sticky tongue which can project to a distance greater than the cranial length. A large and elongated hyoid apparatus, including a long stylohyal, epihyal, reduced ceratohyal and fused basihyal-thyrohyal fused to a partially ossified thyroid cartilage, supports the tongue. The fusion pattern and relative hyoid element sizes in adult Myrmecophaga differ from those in other xenarthran anteaters, tree and ground sloths, and armadillos. The hyoid bones have synovial joints with articular surfaces permitting great freedom of movement. A unique hyoid muscle arrangement enables Myrmecophaga to project the tongue with great speed and precise positional control. This muscle arrangement combined with an elongated secondary palate, accommodates the retracted tongue within the oropharynx without compromising the animal's ability to breathe. Maximum gape is reached at a few degrees of mandibular depression, but the oral opening is increased to 2 cm by the extreme length of the anterior facial region. Gape is further increased by medial rotation and depression of the unfused mandibular rami at the mental symphysis. This movement, even without mandibular depression, permits protraction and retraction of the elongated tongue. Mandibular rotation in lieu of depression and elevation simplifies jaw movements made by a smaller uniquely modified muscle mass over shorter distances, therefore increasing the speed with which anteaters can ingest food, and complements the extremely rapid tongue protrusion–retraction cycle.

This study reports the effect of daily mean ambient temperature on daily activity and habitat use by the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) in the Pantanal wetlands of Brazil. We equipped 11 giant anteaters with a global position system collar programmed to acquire a location every 10 min for 15 d. A temperature data logger left in the meteorological station at the study site registered data on ambient temperature. Giant anteaters were mainly active in open fields except during the coldest days, when they sought protection inside forests. Giant anteaters also used open habitats for resting but during the hottest or chilliest days they sheltered in forests. In the Pantanal, where temperatures are usually high, giant anteaters were active all night long, but as daily average ambient temperature decreased anteaters began and finished activity progressively earlier and reduced total activity. As a consequence, time spent active at daylight increased progressively and time spent active during the night decreased progressively, probably to allow the anteaters to expose themselves to solar radiation and to avoid heat loss during the night.

Ant- and termite-eating are among the few food habits common to monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians. Data are reported on the rate of metabolism and temperature regulation of 14 species of mammals having these food habits, including two monotremes, one marsupial and 11 eutherians. Small mammals with these habits have comparatively high body temperatures and high basal rates of metabolism, but ant- and termite-eaters that weigh more than 1 kg generally have low body temperatures and low basal rates of metabolism. The higher basal rates in small species ensure effective temperature regulation. Low body temperatures in large species principally result from low rates of metabolism. Rates of metabolism are low in these mammals because they use a food that has a limited availability and a low energy density, the density being further decreased in large species by the ingestion of non-nutritive material during feeding. Burrowing habits in some large species also contribute to low rates of metabolism. The combination of body size, food habits, and presence or absence of burrowing behaviour can account for all but about 6% of the range in basal rate in ant- and termite-eaters. Ants and termites, because of their locally clumped distributions, permit a larger mass in terrestrial predators than do other invertebrate prey. The reason why so many “primitive” mammals feed on ants and termites is that, once evolved, mammals with these habits are nearly impossible to displace ecologically, because much of ecological replacement is associated with high rates of reproduction, which are themselves correlated with high rates of metabolism in eutherians. Consequently, the ecological replacement of ant- and termite-eaters is inhibited, because this food habit does not permit high rates of metabolism, except at small masses.

The Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is one of the most specialized mammalian predators, subsisting exclusively on a diet of ants and termites. This study examines the feeding and food preference of captive and wild Giant anteaters in central Brazil. Eight species of mound-building termites were offered to anteaters in the Brasilia Zoo. The anteaters showed marked preferences for some species over others. The overall pattern of preference did not correlate with prey size, prey nutritional quality or the soldier-based defence type of the different prey species. Preferences of wild anteaters in Emas National Park, Goias State, Brazil for an equivalent set of termite species were then determined. The preferences of wild animals did not correlate with the preferences of captive ones. This discrepancy results principally from the fact that the conditions under which anteaters encountered prey in the captive trials were very different from the conditions under which prey were encountered in the wild. A Giant anteater incorporates three major factors in its decision to feed on a particular termite species: nutritional value, availability (or mound defence) and response to attack. The very short feeding periods that typify anteater feeding are caused by the rapidly decreasing prey value of the social insect colony following predator attack. The different types of defence exhibited by the different prey species all serve to cause this rapid decrease and thus limit, but do not prevent, predation. Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the Giant anteater as a predator and termites as prey. Giant anteaters have long been known to eat only ants and termites, but little work has been done on which species are consumed and why those are chosen over others. In two-way choice trials the present author offered captive Giant anteaters eight species of central Brazilian mound-building termites. Myrmecophaga preferences were determined by the amount of time spent feeding on each termite species. The preferences of captive animals were then compared with the preferences of wild anteaters in Emas National Park, Brazil. Myrmecophaga showed marked preferences for some species of termites, both in captivity and in the wild. However, the ranking of prey species differed between the two situations. Most dramatically, one genus, Velocitermes, which was least-preferred in captivity, was most-preferred in the wild. By analysing the differences between wild and captive animals, it has been shown that three major factors seem to influence Giant anteaters food preferences: (1) the type of soldier-based defence; (2) the type of mound defence or availability and (3) the nutritional value. Each of these factors can serve as a defence against anteater predation, and the different termite species incorporate these defences in different ways with different emphases. Giant anteaters feed on all prey species in a similar way: by feeding for short periods of time at many different locations. This pattern of feeding is forced on the predator by the nature of its prey defences, and is not a form of prudent predation as has been previously suggested. I would like to thank the following organizations for funding my research: Organization of American States, National Geographic Society, Harvard University, Sigma Xi and Friends of the National Zoo. The Brazilian Institute of Forestry Development granted me permission to work in Emas Park and the Director, Heber Silva de Oliveira and Assistant Director, Antonio Malheiros da Cruz, provided me with help while in the Park. Ms Sonia Pereira provided invaluable service in helping me follow anteaters. The members of the Order of Saint Benedict in Mineiros, and especially Father Eric Deitchman, helped me greatly. The Brasilia Zoo, and particularly Raimundo David Monteiro Lima, kindly gave me access to their animals and greatly aided my work. The Laboratories of Zoology and Ecology at the University of Brasilia provided working space and support; I would particularly like to thank Drs Cleber J. R. Alho, Tony Raw, Helen Coles de Negret and Tom E. F. Lacher. Dr Alan Mill kindly shared his knowledge of Brazilian termites and identified the termites from Emas Park, while Dr E. O. Wilson helped me with the ants. Dr Lee-Ann Hayek and Jim Craig helped me with statistical analyses; Ms V. Garber and Ms B. L. Stanton typed the manuscript. This manuscript was greatly improved by J. Shaw, K. Sebens, A. W. Crompton, B. Holldobler, N. T. Wheelwright, S. D. Thompson, J. F. Eisenberg and, particularly, P. L. Shaw and J. G. Robinson. I would also like to thank my parents, R. H. Redford and L. C. Redford, and Peter Eisner for helping me to recover and continue.