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This Campbell systematic review examines why the implementation of preventive interventions to reduce youth involvement in gangs and gang crime may fail or succeed low and middle‐income countries. The review summarises findings from four studies conducted in Latin America and the Caribbean. These include findings from field observations and interviews with 63 former gang members in Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador, 940 respondents in three Jamaican communities, 24 participants in Nicaragua and 25 participants in Peru. It is not possible to make any conclusions regarding the effectiveness of preventive interventions. Four factors may be important for intervention design and implementation: Having a range of programme components that appeal to youth such as arts and sports. Active engagement of youths and gang leaders in forming and implementing the programme. Ensuring continuity of social ties outside the gang which are fragile and may not be preserved after short‐term interventions. Ongoing violence and gang involvement limits successful implementation so needs to be addressed. Plain Language Summary Background Youth gang membership and the crime that it generates is a serious problem in low‐and middle‐income countries, involving many thousands of young people and resulting in billions of dollars of crime, loss of life, and social disruption. This review assessed the evidence on preventive interventions that focus on increasing social capacity to reduce gang membership or rehabilitate gang members outside of the criminal justice system. Approach We conducted an extensive search of the published and unpublished academic literature, as well as government and non‐government organization reports to identify studies assessing the effects of preventive youth gang interventions in low‐and middle‐income countries. We also included studies assessing the reasons for success or failure of such interventions and conducted a thematic synthesis of overarching themes identified across the studies. Results We did not identify any studies assessing the effect of preventive gang interventions in LMICs using an experimental or quasi‐experimental design. Four studies evaluating the reasons for implementation success or failure were included. The limited number of studies included in the review suggests that the findings identified here should provide a direction for future research, rather than any substantive or generalizable claim to best practice. Specifically, the synthesis of reasons for implementation success or failure identified five factors that may be important for intervention design and implementation. Preventive gang interventions may be more likely to be successfully implemented when they include: a range of program components that appeal to youth, active engagement of youth, where their agency is embraced and leadership is offered, programs that offer continuity of social ties outside of the gang, and a focus on demobilization and reconciliation. Implications The lack of evidence prevents us from making any conclusions about which interventions are most effective in reducing youth involvement in gangs. To identify programs that work and those that do not researchers, practitioners and commissioners should begin to rigorously evaluate the effectiveness of preventive gang programs in the field. Executive Summary BACKGROUND Youth gangs are frequently associated with high levels of crime and violence in low‐and middle‐income countries ‐‐ creating fear, reducing social cohesion, costing billions of dollars in harm and many thousands of lives diverted to criminality. However, youth gangs are also seen to fill a void, as a means of overcoming extreme disadvantage and marginalization. Preventive interventions focus on capacity building and social prevention, and are designed to work proactively to stop crime before it occurs, either by preventing youth from joining gangs or by reducing recidivism by rehabilitating gang members outside of the criminal justice system. By addressing the causes of youth gang membership, these interventions seek to reduce or prevent gang violence. OBJECTIVES There were two key objectives to this review. To review the evidence on the effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent youth involvement in gangs and gang crime in low‐ and middle‐income countries. This objective has two parts: to summarize the overall effectiveness of interventions, and to examine variability in effectiveness across different interventions and populations. To identify the reasons why the implementation of preventive interventions to reduce youth involvement in gangs and gang crime may fail or succeed in low‐and middle‐income countries. SEARCH METHODS The search for eligible studies was conducted in August and September 2013, as part of a broader project that systematically reviewed literature on conduct problems and crime in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMIC). The search strategy included published and unpublished literature with no date constraints. The search was conducted across 17 academic databases, 8 individual journals, and 10 grey literature repositories. There were no language restrictions on the eligibility of documents, and the search was conducted in seven languages: English, French, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, Spanish and Portuguese. The geographic location of studies was limited to low‐ and middle‐income countries, defined as such by the World Bank at least 50 per cent of the time since 1987, when the recordings start. SELECTION CRITERIA Studies were eligible for the review of effectiveness if they: (1) reported on youth gangs; (2) included participants between 10 and 29 years old; (3) were located in a LMIC; (3) assessed a preventive intervention; and (4) used an eligible quantitative study design. Studies were eligible for the review of reasons for implementation success or failure if they: (1) reported on youth gangs; (2) included participants between 10 and 29 years old; (3) were located in a LMIC; (4) assessed a preventive intervention; (5) evaluated the reasons for success or failure; (6) reported on the sampling strategy; (7) reported on data collection; and (8) reported on the type of analysis. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS A team of reviewers assessed each title and abstract for preliminary eligibility, which was confirmed during full‐text screening. No studies were eligible for the review of effectiveness. For the review of reasons for implementation success or failure, we recorded any evidence of barriers or facilitators of implementation that were identified by the study authors. None of the four studies that were eligible for the thematic synthesis were graded as having low study quality. The review contains a description of each intervention, a summary of the authors' findings and conclusions about barriers and facilitators of implementation success, and a thematic synthesis of overarching themes identified across the studies. RESULTS No studies were identified for the review of effectiveness. Four studies were eligible for the review of reasons for implementation success or failure. The synthesis of reasons for implementation success or failure in the four studies identified five factors that may be important for intervention design and implementation. The limited evidence from the thematic synthesis indicates that preventive gang interventions may be more likely to be successfully implemented when they include: a range of program components that appeal to youth, programs that offer continuity of social ties outside of the gang, a recognition that ongoing violence and gang involvement can severely limit successful implementation, and active engagement of youth, where their agency is embraced and leadership is offered. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS There is a serious lack of rigorous evaluations of preventive gang interventions in low‐ and middle‐income countries from which to draw conclusions about best‐practice. Yet there are a large number of preventive gang programs currently in the field, and many studies that assert their effectiveness. We urge the research and practitioner communities to develop a program of rigorous evaluation, both quantitative and qualitative, in order to establish a benchmark for best practice and to systematically capture important learnings from a range of low‐ and middle‐income country contexts.

This Campbell systematic review examines the predictors of youth gang membership in low‐ and middle‐income countries. The review summarises findings from eight reports from five countries and the Caribbean region. The lack of available evidence limits the extent to which clear conclusions can be drawn about the factors associated with youth gang membership. The review is based on a very small number of studies, and has significant limitations in coverage. The limited evidence of the correlates of youth gang membership suggests factors that may drive gang membership and suggests areas where interventions may prove promising in the family, school, and community domains, as well as provide a starting point for future studies. Plain language summary Evidence shows which factors predict gang membership in low‐ and middle‐income countries, but more studies needed Youth gang membership is associated with delinquency, violent crime and trafficking. A range of individual, peer, family, school and community factors can predict the likelihood of youths getting involved with gangs. Knowledge of these factors can be helpful for reducing gang membership. What is this review about? Youth gang membership is associated with delinquency, violent crime and trafficking – and gang members are themselves frequently the victims of these offences. Yet youth gangs can also provide a form of social capital, a sense of belonging and purpose to disenfranchised youth. This review identifies the factors associated with young people joining gangs, and the differences between gang‐involved and non‐gang‐involved youth. Understanding these associations is essential to reduce the levels of gang membership and the incidence of related violence. What is the aim of this review? This Campbell systematic review examines the predictors of youth gang membership in low‐ and middle‐income countries. The review summarises findings from eight reports from five countries and the Caribbean region. What studies are included? Studies of youth gangs in in low‐ and middle‐income countries were included, with participants aged 10‐29 years. The studies had to assess an individual predictor or correlate of youth gang membership, where the predictor or correlate is a single characteristic, not a conglomeration of multiple constructs. Included studies had designs including data on both gang‐involved and non‐gang‐involved youth, recruited with strategies that were eligible. Nine studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. One of these studies did not report all the required data and so was not included in the analyses. The studies were conducted in Turkey, Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, El Salvador, China and Brazil. Factors associated with gang membership Domain Significantly associated with gang membership No significant association with gang membership Individual Delinquency Alcohol and soft drug use Male gender Risky sexual behaviours Employment Psychological risk factors (low self‐control, impulsivity) and lack of psychological protective factors (empathy, future orientation, belief in moral order) Victimisation Age Minority ethnicity Protective behaviours surrounding sexual behaviour or alcohol and soft drug use. Peer Socialising with delinquent peers Socialising with pro‐social peers Family Negative family environments Lack of parental monitoring Middle‐income families had greater odds of reporting youth gang membership than those from either high or low‐income families (finding from one study) Parental education Parental attitudes to antisocial behaviour School Low school attachment Exposure to violence at school Educational difficulties Opportunities for prosocial involvement Level of education School type School performance Community Exposed to neighbourhood violence Neighbourhood environment risk or protective factors, or geography What are the main results in this review? The eight studies analysed in the review address the associations between life events and circumstances, and the likelihood of being a youth gang member across five domains: individual, peers, family, school and community. Significant associations were found with factors in each domain. What do the findings of this review mean? The lack of available evidence limits the extent to which clear conclusions can be drawn about the factors associated with youth gang membership. The review is based on a very small number of studies, and has significant limitations in coverage. The limited evidence of the correlates of youth gang membership suggests factors that may drive gang membership and suggests areas where interventions may prove promising in the family, school, and community domains, as well as provide a starting point for future studies. How up‐to‐date is this review? The review authors searched for studies published up to September 2013. This Campbell systematic review was published in December 2018. Summary Background Youth gang membership is well documented throughout low‐ and middle‐income countries, and youth gang members are increasingly associated with delinquency, violent crime and trafficking. They are also frequently the victims of these offences, often in disproportionate numbers compared to non‐gang youth. Yet youth gangs can also provide a form of social capital, a sense of belonging and purpose to disenfranchised youth. Extensive research, primarily from high‐income countries, has categorized five domains of risk and protective factors for youth gang involvement, drawn from the realm of developmental psychology. These domains are: Individual, Peer, Family, School, and Community. Youth gang membership is seen as the culmination of interrelated structural and process factors, which in combination with negative life events may increase the attractiveness of gang membership. This review aimed to identify the factors associated with young people joining gangs, and to identify and quantify the differences between gang‐involved and non‐gang‐involved youth. Understanding these associations is essential to reduce the levels of gang membership and the incidence of related violence. Objectives This review addresses two key objectives: (1) to synthesize the published and unpublished empirical evidence on the factors associated with membership of youth gangs in low‐ and middle‐income countries;(2) to assess the relative strength of the different factors across the domains of individual, family, school, peer group and community. Search methods The search was conducted in English, French, Chinese, Arabic, Russian, Spanish and Portuguese. We searched 55 locations including academic databases, journals, and grey literature locations, and located over 54,000 documents to screen. Selection criteria We included studies meeting the following criteria: Reports on youth gangs All participants aged 10‐29 years Located in low‐ or middle‐income country Assesses an individual predictor or correlate of youth gang membership Predictor or correlate is a single characteristic Predictor or correlate is not a conglomeration of multiple constructs Eligible recruitment strategy for respondents Study design included data on both gang involved and non‐gang involved youth. Data collection and analysis We conducted a broad abstract screening of over 54,000 titles and abstracts, followed by a close abstract screening of 1509 abstracts. We screened the full‐text of 98 documents. Nine studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. One of these studies did not report sufficient data to allow the calculation of a standardized effect size, and so was not included in the analyses. A total of 85 independent effect sizes were extracted from the eight studies with sufficient data to create a standardized effect size. We calculated Cohen's d from continuous data and the Log Odds Ratio from dichotomous data. All effects were categorized into the five predictor domains, and further classified into conceptually similar group and risk or protective factors. We synthesized the data using multiple random effects meta‐analyses with inverse variance weighting. Results The eight studies analysed in the review address the associations between life events and circumstances, and the likelihood of being a youth gang member. All studies were based on cross‐sectional survey data, using different statistical methods to identify correlations between youth characteristics and the likelihood of being a member of a youth gang. No longitudinal, prospective or retrospective studies were located. The studies were conducted in Turkey, Trinidad and Tobago, the Caribbean, El Salvador, China and Brazil. We organized the analyses according to five domains of factors that may be associated with youth gang involvement and summarize the main findings below: Individual factors Delinquency, alcohol and soft drug use, male gender, risky sexual behaviours, employment, psychological risk factors (low self‐control, impulsivity), and victimisation were each associated with significantly higher odds of youth gang membership. Psychological protective factors (empathy, future orientation, belief in moral order) were associated with lower odds. No association between youth gang membership and age, minority ethnicity, or protective behaviours surrounding sexual behaviour or alcohol and soft drug use. Peer factors There is a small amount of evidence that socialising with delinquent peers is associated with increased odds of youth gang membership, but there is no significant relationship demonstrated between socialising with pro‐social peers and youth gang membership. Family factors Negative family environments are associated with more youth gang membership, while both a positive family environment and parental monitoring were associated with lower odds. One study showed that youth from middle‐income families had greater odds of reporting youth gang membership than those from either high or low‐income families. No significant relationship was seen between youth gang membership and parental education or parental attitudes to antisocial behaviour. School factors Low school attachment, exposure to violence at school, educational difficulties and opportunities for prosocial involvement all show significant association with more youth gang membership. No significant relationship was seen between youth gang membership and level of education, school type, or school performance. Community factors There were significantly higher odds of youth gang membership amongst those who reported that they were exposed to violence in their neighbourhood. No demonstrated association between youth gang membership and neighbourhood environment risk or protective factors, or geography. Gang membership is typically viewed as a culmination of interrelated structural and process factors. Understanding the factors associated with youth gang membership can help inform prevention strategies to reduce the levels of youth gang membership and the incidence of youth gang violence. Unfortunately the small number of studies contributing to any analysis limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this study. Moreover, many of the individual and peer associations identified in this review (such as delinquency, drug use, and sexual risk factors) may be as a result of gang membership rather than its cause. However, our results suggest certain family, school, and community level factors associated with gang membership that could be addressed through targeted preventive interventions, particularly family environment, parental monitoring, school attachment, educational difficulties, and exposure to violence in the home, at school, or in the community. Authors’ conclusions The lack of available evidence limits the extent to which we can draw any clear conclusions about the factors associated with youth gang membership. This current review is based on a very small number of studies, and has significant limitations in coverage; however it provides some limited evidence of the correlates of youth gang membership. Specifically, this review suggests factors that may drive gang membership and suggests areas where interventions may prove promising in the family, school, and community domains, as well as provide a starting point for future studies.

BACKGROUND The Problem There is evidence of gang violence in low- and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia, and the prevalence of gangs is particularly well documented throughout Central and South America (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; Gatti et al., 2011). Official estimates of gang membership in Central America estimate approximately 69,000 members, while academic estimates believe this figure to be closer to 200,000 (UNODC, 2007). Some estimates are as high as 500,000 gang members in the region including South America and the Caribbean, and gangs have been identified as “the primary threat to regional stability and security” (Muggah & Aguirre, 2013). While reporting and recording issues make it difficult to estimate rates of gang violence, the homicide rate in Colombia, Brazil, El Salvador and Guatemala are substantially higher than those of European and North American countries (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; UNODC, 2007). Gangs are also active in South Africa, with an estimate of 100,000 members in Western Cape alone (Reckson & Becker, cited in Decker & Pyrooz, 2010); however, to date, there is limited research examining gangs in Africa and Asia...

BACKGROUND The Problem The involvement of young people in gangs and gang crime is not only an issue in western nations, but also across low- and middle-income countries. Research demonstrates the existence of youth gangs in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, with much of the evidence coming from Latin American nations (Decker & Pyrooz, 2010; Gatti, Haymoz & Schadee, 2011). Although official and academic estimates of gang membership differ, estimates put the number of gang members in Central America at up to 200,000 (UNODC, 2007), and research suggests that over 85,000 people are members of gangs in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras (Seelke, 2013). In South Africa, it is estimated that there are up to 100,000 members in Western Cape alone (Reckson & Becker, cited in Decker & Pyrooz, 2010). Gang activities – and particularly those of youth gangs – contribute significantly to the violent crime problem in low- and middle-income countries. The cost of violence in Latin America is estimated at approximately 14.2 per cent of GDP – almost three times the proportion of GDP reported in industrialised countries (Seelke, 2013). Gang violence makes up a significant proportion of this cost: the annual cost of violent crime in El Salvador is reported at US$ 1.7 billion, with gang violence accounting for 60 per cent (Seelke, 2013)...