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Subsidizing polluting industries generally leads to increased pollution locally. However, given the diversity of production technologies across countries and international trade, the global impact of unilateral policies is not a priori clear. We use the agricultural sector model CAPRI to simulate the impact of removing the voluntary coupled support for ruminants, presently permitted under the EU Common Agricultural Policy. We find that this reduces greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. However, emissions leakage significantly diminishes the global mitigation effect since about 3/4 of the reduction in the EU is offset by increased emissions in the rest of the world.

The fluorescent adenine analogue qAN4 was recently shown to possess promising photophysical properties, including a high brightness as a monomer. Here we report the synthesis of the phosphoramidite of qAN4 and its successful incorporation into DNA oligonucleotides using standard solid-phase synthesis. Circular dichroism and thermal melting studies indicate that the qAN4-modification has a stabilizing effect on the B-form of DNA. Moreover, qAN4 base-pairs selectively with thymine with mismatch penalties similar to those of mismatches of adenine. The low energy absorption band of qAN4 inside DNA has its peak around 358 nm and the emission in duplex DNA is partly quenched and blue-shifted (ca. 410 nm), compared to the monomeric form. The spectral properties of the fluorophore also show sensitivity to pH; a property that may find biological applications. Quantum yields in single-stranded DNA range from 1-29 % and in duplex DNA from 1-7 %. In combination with the absorptive properties, this gives an average brightness inside duplex DNA of 275 M-1 cm-1 , more than five times higher than the most used environment-sensitive fluorescent base analogue, 2-aminopurine. Finally, we show that qAN4 can be used to advantage as a donor for interbase FRET applications in combination with adenine analogue qAnitro as an acceptor.

Background and aims: Hereditary transthyretin amyloid (ATTRv) amyloidosis caused by the transthyretin (TTR) Val30Met (p.V50M) mutation is characterised by peripheral neuropathy, and central nervous ...

Objectives To examine the current knowledge on oral health status and dental care of older persons through a systematic mapping of systematic reviews of low or moderate risk of bias. Background Geriatric dentistry covers all aspects of oral health and oral care of older persons. Oral health is part of general health and contributes to a person's physical, psychological and social wellbeing. Methods A literature search was performed in three different databases (PubMed, The Cochrane Library and Cinahl) within 12 domains: Dental caries, periodontitis, Orofacial pain and temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain, mucosal lesions, oral motor function, dry mouth, halitosis, interaction between oral status and other medical conditions, ability to interrelate and communicate, quality of life, ethics and organisation of dental care for older persons. Systematic reviews were identified and scrutinised, highlighting scientific knowledge and knowledge gaps. Results We included 32 systematic reviews of which 14 were judged to be of low/moderate risk of bias. Most of the domains lack systematic reviews with low or moderate risk of bias. In two of the domains evidence was identified; in institutionalised people aged 65 or older, effective oral hygiene can prevent pneumonia. Furthermore, there is an evidence of a relationship between malnutrition (protein energy-related malnutrition, PEM) and poor appetite and edentulousness. Conclusions There is an urgent need for further research and evidence-based knowledge within most domains in geriatric dentistry and in other fields related to oral health and dental care for older persons striving for multi-disciplinary research programmes.

We use Swedish ownership data to explore whether a large and diversified shareholder base leads to lower volatility by improving the information content of stock prices. We find that volatility increases in the number of shareholders with respect to both the number of relatively large shareholders and the fraction of shares held by investors with stakes below 0.1%. Volatility is also positively related to the number of institutional owners but negatively related to the number of large and underdiversified institutional owners. Foreign investors have no impact. Our results suggest that a large shareholder base does not lower volatility.

We address a new agricultural policy concern following the decoupling of CAP direct payments in 2005: passive farming, whereby landowners maintain their agricultural area to collect payments without producing commodities. It is claimed that passive farming is hindering agricultural development by 'blocking' access to farmland for expanding farmers. We evaluate the links between the EU's Single Payment Scheme (SPS), passive farming, land use and agricultural development. Following identification of the rational landowners' optimal land-use choice, we evaluate the effects of the SPS using a spatial, agent-based model that simulates farmers' competition for land in a case-study region of Sweden. We show that passive farming does not constrain land from being used in production; on the contrary more land is used than would be the case without the SPS. We conclude that passive farming is not a problem for agriculture, but provides public goods that would otherwise be under provided: preservation of marginal farmland and future food security. However SPS payments on highly productive land inflate land values (capitalisation) and slow structural change, which hinder agricultural development. Consequently CAP goals could be better served by targeting payments on marginal land and phasing out payments to highly productive land. (Less)

Astrocytes have multiple roles in the CNS including control of adult neurogenesis. We recently showed that astrocyte inhibition of neurogenesis through Notch signaling depends on the intermediate filament proteins glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin. Here, we used real-time quantitative PCR to analyze gene expression in individual mouse astrocytes in primary cultures and in GFAP(POS) or Aldh1L1(POS) astrocytes freshly isolated from uninjured, contralesional and lesioned hippocampus 4 days after entorhinal cortex lesion. To determine the Notch signaling competence of individual astrocytes, we measured the mRNA levels of Notch ligands and Notch1 receptor. We found that whereas most cultured and freshly isolated astrocytes were competent to receive Notch signals, only a minority of astrocytes were competent to send Notch signals. Injury increased the fraction of astrocyte subpopulation unable to send and receive Notch signals, thus resembling primary astrocytes in vitro. Astrocytes deficient of GFAP and vimentin showed decreased Notch signal sending competence and altered expression of Notch signaling pathway-related genes Dlk2, Notch1, and Sox2. Furthermore, we identified astrocyte subpopulations based on their mRNA and protein expression of nestin and HB-EGF. This study improves our understanding of astrocyte heterogeneity, and points to astrocyte cytoplasmic intermediate filaments as targets for neural cell replacement strategies.

Researchers have established a relationship between greater education and training and higher earnings but it is difficult to infer that the former causes the latter if those with higher earnings tend to engage in more education and training. The present study attempts to control for ability and family background to see if stronger inferences can be made about education and training as the independent variable. The study focuses upon advanced vocational education and training (AVET) in Sweden. This is post-secondary school education for individuals who are 20 years of age or older. The aim of this article is to estimate the effects of AVET on earnings by controlling for selection bias. We used various approaches such as instrumental variables, Hausman–Taylor estimates, fixed effects estimates and propensity score matching to achieve this aim. A panel, or longitudinal, data set for eight different labor markets in Sweden for the period 1996–2008 was used. The results indicate that earnings from AVET are higher than the return on investment in comprehensive education. The average effect on income is estimated to be in the range of 3–8 percent.

Background The long-term molecular changes in the central nervous system constitute an important aspect of general anaesthesia, but little is known about to what extent these molecular changes are affected by anaesthesia duration. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of short duration (20 min) general anaesthesia with isoflurane or avertin on the expression of 20 selected genes in the mouse hippocampus at 1 and 4 days after anaesthesia. Methods Nine to eleven-weeks-old male mice received one of the following treatments: 20 min of avertin-induced anaesthesia (n = 11), 20 min of isoflurane-induced anaesthesia (n = 10) and no anaesthesia (n = 5). One and four days after anaesthesia, gene expression in the hippocampus was determined with reverse transcription quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results We found that anaesthesia led to the upregulation of six genes: Hspd1 (heat shock protein 1), Plat (tissue plasminogen activator) and Npr3 (natriuretic peptide receptor 3) were upregulated only 1 day after anaesthesia, whereas Thbs4 (thrombospondin 4) was upregulated only 4 days after anaesthesia. Syp (synaptophysin) and Mgst1 (microsomal glutathione S-transferase 1) were upregulated at both time points. Hspd1, Mgst1 and Syp expression was increased regardless of the anaesthetic used, Npr3 and Plat were increased only in mice exposed to avertin, and Thbs4 was upregulated only after isoflurane-induced anaesthesia. Conclusions This study shows that some of the effects of short general anaesthesia on gene expression in the mouse hippocampus persist for at least 4 days.

The functional role of reactive astrocytes after stroke is controversial. To elucidate whether reactive astrocytes contribute to neurological recovery, we compared behavioral outcome, axonal remodeling of the corticospinal tract (CST), and the spatio-temporal change of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG) expression between wild-type (WT) and glial fibrillary acidic protein/vimentin double knockout (GFAP(-/-) Vim(-/-) ) mice subjected to Rose Bengal induced cerebral cortical photothrombotic stroke in the right forelimb motor area. A foot-fault test and a single pellet reaching test were performed prior to and on day 3 after stroke, and weekly thereafter to monitor functional deficit and recovery. Biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) was injected into the left motor cortex to anterogradely label the CST axons. Compared with WT mice, the motor functional recovery and BDA-positive CST axonal length in the denervated side of the cervical gray matter were significantly reduced in GFAP(-/-) Vim(-/-) mice (n = 10/group, P

Background Testicular dysfunction and infertility are of major concern in long-term survivors after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). This study assesses predictive factors for very long-term testicular recovery after allogeneic HSCT in childhood and adolescence. Procedure Testicular volume, sperm production and long-term need of testosterone substitution were evaluated among 106 male survivors transplanted at Huddinge and Helsinki University Hospitals from 1978 through 2000, at a mean age of 8 ± 4.6 years (range 1–17). A mean ± SD of 13 ± 4.8 years (range 4–28) had elapsed since their HSCT and the mean age of the participants was 22 ± 6.0 years (range 12–42). An adult testicular volume was recorded in 74 patients at a mean age of 19 ± 3.3 years (range 14–36). Results Recipients conditioned with busulfan-based regimens or regimens containing only cyclophosphamide had significantly larger adult testicular volumes (mean volume 18 ml and 16 ml vs. 9 ml, P

The accumulation of aggregated amyloid-β (Aβ) in amyloid plaques is a neuropathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Reactive astrocytes are intimately associated with amyloid plaques; however, their role in AD pathogenesis is unclear. We deleted the genes encoding two intermediate filament proteins required for astrocyte activation—glial fibrillary acid protein (Gfap) and vimentin (Vim)—in transgenic mice expressing mutant human amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 (APP/PS1). The gene deletions increased amyloid plaque load: APP/PS1 Gfap−/−Vim−/− mice had twice the plaque load of APP/PS1 Gfap+/+Vim+/+ mice at 8 and 12 mo of age. APP expression and soluble and interstitial fluid Aβ levels were unchanged, suggesting that the deletions had no effect on APP processing or Aβ generation. Astrocyte morphology was markedly altered by the deletions: wild-type astrocytes had hypertrophied processes that surrounded and infiltrated plaques, whereas Gfap−/−Vim−/− astrocytes had little process hypertrophy and lacked contact with adjacent plaques. Moreover, Gfap and Vim gene deletion resulted in a marked increase in dystrophic neurites (2- to 3-fold higher than APP/PS1 Gfap+/+Vim+/+ mice), even after normalization for amyloid load. These results suggest that astrocyte activation limits plaque growth and attenuates plaque-related dystrophic neurites. These activities may require intimate contact between astrocyte and plaque.—Kraft, A. W., Hu, X., Yoon, H., Yan, P., Xiao, Q., Wang, Y., Gil, S. C., Brown, J., Wilhelmsson, U., Restivo, J. L., Cirrito, J. R., Holtzman, D. M., Kim, J., Pekny, M., Lee, J.-M. Attenuating astrocyte activation accelerates plaque pathogenesis in APP/PS1 mice.

roos s, wilhelmsson s, vulcan a, sjoberg k & hallert c (2011)Journal of Nursing and Healthcare of Chronic Illness3, 302–309 Bowel symptoms, self-image and comorbidity impact on well-being of women with coeliac disease Aim. To explore if gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, self-image and comorbidity are related to well-being in women with coeliac disease (CD) and whether a history of CD in childhood impacts on well-being in adulthood. Background. Women in Sweden living with CD show a reduced level of well-being and report a high rate of GI complaints for unclear reasons. The self-image of these women is unknown. Design. A cross-sectional survey of 231 Swedish women with CD on long-term treatment (≥5 years) with a gluten-free diet (GFD) was conducted in 2010. Results. The study showed that well-being is related to a high rate GI symptoms (OR 16·9, 95% CI 5·6–50·7), a negative self-image (OR 8·9, 95% CI 3·5–22·9) and comorbidity (OR 3·3, 95% CI 1·7–6·4). There was no impact of childhood symptoms on well-being, GI symptoms, self-image or comorbidity in adulthood. Half of the study population showed reduced well-being compared with norms. Practically all women (97%) declared that they were always or usually following a GFD and 62% reported at least one disease besides CD. Conclusion. The study demonstrated that the well-being of women living with CD is affected by GI complaints, self-image and a high rate of comorbidity whereas a history of signs and symptoms of CD in childhood not seems to impact on the well-being in adulthood. Relevance to clinical practice. Gastrointestinal symptoms, self-image and comorbidity are factors contributing to a low level of well-being of CD women living on a GFD. Launching a multi-disciplinary team for follow-up would represent a novel approach to support these women and may prove valuable in improving their subjective health.

Increased stiffness of reactive glial cells may impede neurite growth and contribute to the poor regenerative capabilities of the mammalian central nervous system. We induced reactive gliosis in rodent retina by ischemia-reperfusion and assessed intermediate filament (IF) expression and the viscoelastic properties of dissociated single glial cells in wild-type mice, mice lacking glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin (GFAP−/−Vim−/−) in which glial cells are consequently devoid of IFs, and normal Long-Evans rats. In response to ischemia-reperfusion, glial cells stiffened significantly in wild-type mice and rats but were unchanged in GFAP−/−Vim−/− mice. Cell stiffness (elastic modulus) correlated with the density of IFs. These results support the hypothesis that rigid glial scars impair nerve regeneration and that IFs are important determinants of cellular viscoelasticity in reactive glia. Thus, therapeutic suppression of IF up-regulation in reactive glial cells may facilitate neuroregeneration.—Lu, Y...

We test if innovations in investor risk aversion are a priced factor in the stock market. Time series tests show that the new factor partly explains the strong momentum effect in stock returns. Furthermore, using 25 portfolios sorted on book-to-market and size as test assets, our new factor together with the market factor explains 64% of the variation in average returns compared to 60% for the Fama-French model. The new factor is generally significant with an estimated risk premium close to its time series mean also when industry portfolios and portfolios sorted on previous returns are augmented to the test assets.

The length of time for which deep vein thrombosis (DVT) should be treated with oral anticoagulants (OA) is controversial. In this study, 135 patients with symptomatic first period DVT (83% with proximal DVT) were randomly allocated to OA for one or six months. The diagnosis of initial and recurrent DVT was confirmed by phlebography or plethysmography and thermography, or by a combination of all these methods. Pulmonary emboli were confirmed by lung scans or at autopsy. The patients were followed for at least one year. One patient had to discontinue OA prematurely because of haemorrhage. Seventeen patients left the project for other reasons, ten during and seven after therapy; in one of these DVT recurred. The recurrence rate during the first year was high (17% symptomatic recurrences) irrespective of whether OA had been given for one or six months.

A double-blind trial with the beta 1-selective blocker metoprolol in suspected acute myocardial infarction and during 3 months' follow-up included 1395 patients, aged 40-74 years, 698 on metoprolol and 697 on placebo. In order to further evaluate the tolerability to beta-blockade in the elderly, the total series was divided into 2 groups according to median age (61 years) and into quartiles, the lowest quartile (40-57 years) being compared with the highest (67-74 years). The decrease in heart rate and systolic blood pressure after intravenous metoprolol in the acute phase was similar in the elderly and the younger patients. Hypotension was observed more often in the metoprolol-treated than in the placebo-treated younger patients, while no difference was observed in the elderly. Bradycardia was observed more often in the metoprolol group in both age groups, while there was no difference regarding the incidence of congestive heart failure in either the younger or in the elderly patients. The effect on mortality, serious ventricular arrhythmias and chest pain seemed to be similar in different age groups. From the present series we conclude that hemodynamic reactions and tolerability to beta-blockade can be expected to be similar in elderly and younger patients.

The beta-blocker trials published so far may be subdivided into three different categories: 1) retrospective, 2) prospective non-conclusive, 3) prospective conclusive studies. The retrospective studies suffer the weaknesses of the retrospective method and may only be used as supportive evidence. There have so far been four prospective studies producing positive results, three with alprenolol and one with practolol. The studies presented support the concept that practolol and alprenolol reduce the long-term mortality due to sudden death from ischemic heart disease after myocardial infarction. All the studies have been criticized on various grounds and a list of unanswered remaining issues may be made. Acute and long-term effects of betablockade need not be the same. Our knowledge about the necessary doses and plasma levels is incomplete. All the studies published so far cover a maximum period of two years. If the study observation periods were prolonged it is likely that at some time the relative benefit becomes less. Ideal treatment should be reserved for those patients likely to derive significant benefit from it. At the present time identification of such patients is not sufficiently precise. Whether or not the beta-blockers have an antiarrhythmic effect, for instance demonstrated on chronic PVC's, this information is of little value in interpreting the proper mechanism of the beta-blockers in acute ischemia and lethal arrhythmias. In order to contribute new knowledge future studies should involve sufficiently large numbers of representative groups of patients, a stratified study design and a beta-blocker with ancillary properties different from alprenolol.

Angina pectoris was studied in a representative series of male patients (n = 504) with a first myocardial infarction (MI) surviving the hospital stay. The prevalence of questionnaire angina before MI was 28% and of effort-induced chest pain alone 40%. Of the patients with effort-induced chest pain, 72% retained symptoms also after MI. No correlation with age was found. Three months after and one year after infarction the prevalence of effort-induced chest pain was 55% and 45%, respectively. The patients with effort-induced chest pain before MI had a somewhat more severe clinical course and a significantly higher death rate (15% versus 6%) than those without chest pain.

Summary Three phenotypes of phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) from the Japanese quail erythrocytes were observed by horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. Population and family data from one laboratory population of quail was consistent with the theory that PGI polymorphism was controlled by two codominant, autosomal alleles designated PGIF and PGIS with gene frequency values 0.25 and 0.75, respectively. The study supported the earlier view that the Japanese quail is highly polymorphic with regard to biochemical variation.

Blood pressure (BP) was measured before and after acute myocardial infarction (MI) in 21 men aged 49--60 years from a random population sample. Men on drugs affecting BP before MI or during follow-up were excluded. Pre- and postinfarction cholesterol levels were analyzed in 49 men not on hyperlipidemic treatment recruited from the same population sample. The mean fall in systolic BP (SBP) was 14 mmHg both five weeks and one year after the acute event, but 10 mmHg after two years. The mean fall in diastolic BP (DBP) was 10 mmHg five weeks after the MI and remained at this level for two years. The decreases in SBP and DBP were significant. There was a positive correlation between the maximum rise in SGOT during the acute phase of MI and the decrease in DBP between preinfarction readings and readings five weeks after the MI. Serum cholesterol was unchanged three months, and one and two years after the MI as compared to the preinfarction level.

A series of 8-(1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-substituted adenosine derivatives have been synthesised by using Sonogashira cross-coupling and click chemistry. The use of click chemistry enables an easy access to different substituents in the 4-position of the triazole ring. The modified nucleosides show high absorptivities due to a single strongly allowed electronic transition and, for some of the derivatives, high quantum yields in organic as well as in water solution making them promising as fluorescent probes in nucleic acid contexts. Furthermore, the different substituents of the 1,2,3-triazole makes the wavelength of emission tunable without changing the absorption properties substantially. ((C) Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2009)

This study aims to investigate the land cover changes in relation to traditional utilization and livestock grazing, socioeconomic development, and demographic changes during recent decades in a forested watershed in the southern Zagros, Iran. Data on land cover change were collected through stereo interpretation with digital photogrammetric techniques applied to sets of scanned aerial photographs from 1969 and 1993 with a systematic grid of sample plots provided by GIS techniques. Efforts were made to mitigate errors in the interpretation. Field data were gathered in 2003 from woodland inventory, biophysical, and demographic data and in 2006 from interviews. The results show stability in crown cover density (%) and in the number of large trees, and an increase in the woodland class. The results may be related to a change in woodland utilization. Socioeconomic development, decrease in human and livestock population, and a change in the type of livestock have influenced the traditional pattern. Steep slopes partially limit human accessibility to woodland resources. Around 54% of the oak trees are in coppice form and natural regeneration of the trees is rare. Overgrazing and seed gathering have a negative effect on regeneration and endanger the future survival of the woodland. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In this thesis a new design concept of tribologically active coatings aimed for low friction applications, have been explored. Materials modeled by ab initio DFT calculations were realized through deposition of carbide and nanocomposite coatings by DC-magnetron sputtering. The design concept employs destabilization of a carbide material by alloying with a weak carbide-forming element, which refines the structure into a nanocomposite. The destabilization creates a driving force for superficial ejection of carbon in a tribological contact, forming a lubricious graphitic carbon layer. The otherwise hard material limits the real contact area and the transformed layer accounts for low shear resistance. Hence, the ideal situation for low friction is provided by formation of an easily sheared thin surface layer on a hard material. TiAlC was chosen as a model system for the theoretical modeling as well as for the depositions. The elemental composition, microstructure and mechanical properties of the coatings were characterized to relate the inherent properties to the experimentally achieved tribological response. As predicted by theory, TiAlC coatings were shown to provide self-lubrication on the atomic scale by giving low friction through a tribologically induced surface restructuring. It was shown possible to reduce the friction coefficient from 0.35 for TiC to 0.05 by addition of Al. Alloying with Al also proved to be a potent method in tailoring residual stresses from high and often detrimental levels to acceptable levels, with no significant reduction in either hardness or Young’s modulus. The effect of adding Al into TiC on the oxidation resistance was also explored. The critical temperature for onset of oxidation proved to increase with the Al-content from about 350°C for TiC to about 450°C for TiAlC with about 7 at% Al. A further increase in Al content did not change the onset temperature further but reduced the oxidation rate.

(Figure Presented) Finding AT tracts: High selectivity for long AT sequences can be attained through kinetically controlled DNA threading intercalation by binuclear ruthenium (II) complexes (see picture). The rate of intercalation is strongly correlated to the number of consecutive AT base pairs and is up to 2500-times higher with poly-(dAdT) 2 than with mixed-sequence DNA. © 2007 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

Through its involvement in inflammation, opsonization, and cytolysis, the complement protects against infectious agents. Although most of the complement proteins are synthesized in the central nervous system (CNS), the role of the complement system in the normal or ischemic CNS remains unclear. Here we demonstrate for the first time that neural progenitor cells and immature neurons express receptors for complement fragments C3a and C5a (C3a receptor (C3aR) and C5a receptor). Mice that are deficient in complement factor C3 (C3(-/-)) lack C3a and are unable to generate C5a through proteolytic cleavage of C5 by C5-convertase. Intriguingly, basal neurogenesis is decreased both in C3(-/-) mice and in mice lacking C3aR or mice treated with a C3aR antagonist. The C3(-/-) mice had impaired ischemia-induced neurogenesis both in the subventricular zone, the main source of neural progenitor cells in adult brain, and in the ischemic region, despite normal proliferative response and larger infarct volumes. Thus, in the adult mammalian CNS, complement activation products promote both basal and ischemia-induced neurogenesis.

This paper investigates the forecasting performance of the Garch (1, 1) model when estimated with NINE different error distributions on Standard and Poor’s 500 Index Future returns. By utilizing the theory of realized variance to construct an appropriate ex post measure of volatility from intra-day data it is shown that allowing for a leptokurtic error distribution leads to significant improvements in variance forecasts compared to using the normal distribution. This result holds for daily, weekly as well as monthly forecast horizons. It is also found that allowing for skewness and time variation in the higher moments of the distribution does not further improve forecasts. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Universities, knowledge transfer and regional development : Geography, entrepreneurship and policy

This thesis focuses on the psychosocial working conditions shared by general practitioners and district nurses in Sweden, in relation to the personal doctor reform and district nurses' right to prescribe drugs.First, a questionnaire was compiled and developed through a stepwise development phase, including key informant interviews, literature review, and review of other models and questionnaires used with a similar purpose. The questionnaire developed was used in a pilot study with 42 general practitioners and 39 district nurses. The questionnaire with 78 items in different parts, was tested for construct validity through factor analysis, and for reliability through Cronbach's alpha. It was then used in the main study.One aim was also to compare perceived changes in working conditions between general practitioners and district nurses during different degrees of implementation of a personal doctor system. A sample of 469 general practitioners and 466 district nurses participated. The cross-sectional design makes it difficult to distinguish the possible direct effects of a personal doctor from other regional differences. However, is it important to note that the personnel in a more far-reaching personal doctor system perceived less favourable psychosocial working conditions than personnel in a more traditional primary care system.Another aim was to investigate gender and professional differences in the shared psychosocial working conditions. Both general practitioners and district nurses were satisfied with the professional content of their work and experienced rather low or moderate levels of strains -and symptoms. However, female general practitioners perceived the most unfavourable working conditions compared with both male colleagues and female district nurses.The opinions among general practitioners and district nurses, to district nurses' right to prescribe drugs differed in all aspects studied. District nurses were positive and general practitioners negative. To gain a deeper understanding of the different opinions, six focus group interviews was carried out. The resistance to the refonn had turned into silence. General practitioners and district nurses hardly speak to each other about prescribing. The district nurses were uncertain whether the general practitioners trusted them and made up systems for self-control.The personnel within a more far-reaching personal doctor system perceived less-favourable psychosocial working conditions compared with personnel in more traditional primary care system. Female general practitioners seem to experience the most unfavourable working conditions. compared with both their male counterparts, and female district nurses. District nurses prescribing highlights professional differences. Quantitative and qualitative data complement each other and give more diverse information.

Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a powerful tool for monitoring molecular distances and interactions at the nanoscale level. The strong dependence of transfer efficiency on probe separation makes FRET perfectly suited for on/off experiments. To use FRET to obtain quantitative distances and three-dimensional structures, however, is more challenging. This review summarises recent studies and technological advances that have improved FRET as a quantitative molecular ruler in nucleic acid systems, both at the ensemble and at the single-molecule levels.