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Microsporidia are prolific producers of effector molecules, encompassing both proteins and nonproteinaceous effectors, such as toxins, small RNAs, and small peptides. These secreted effectors play a pivotal role in the pathogenicity of microsporidia, enabling them to subvert the host's innate immunity and co-opt metabolic pathways to fuel their own growth and proliferation. However, the genomes of microsporidia, despite falling within the size range of bacteria, exhibit significant reductions in both structural and physiological features, thereby affecting the repertoire of secretory effectors to varying extents. This review focuses on recent advances in understanding how microsporidia modulate host cells through the secretion of effectors, highlighting current challenges and proposed solutions in deciphering the complexities of microsporidial secretory effectors., (© 2024 International Society of Protistologists.)

The purpose of this study was to compare the blood concentration and pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of 2 formulations under fasting and ed conditions in healthy Chinese volunteers and to evaluate whether the 2 preparations were bioequivalent. This trial screened 170 subjects. Thirteen subjects were assigned to the fasting trial and 18 subjects to the fed trial; 1 subject in the fed trial group was automatically withdrawn for personal reasons. Two cycles had a 14-day washout period. This clinical study was a bioequivalence study, with PK parameters as end point indicators. The bioequivalence PK parameters were the maximal concentration (C max ), area under the blood drug concentration-time curve from 0 to 72 hours (AUC 0-72 h ), and the time to peak plasma concentration (t max ) which were determined in human plasma by the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method, and nonatrioventricular model analysis was used to determine C max , AUC 0-72 h , t max , and other PK parameters. The incidence of adverse events was calculated on the basis of System Organ Classification and Preferred Terms. The results showed that the amlodipine besylate tablets met the equivalence range requirements of bioequivalence in the guidelines for human bioavailability and bioequivalence testing under fasting and fed conditions, compared to the fasting test; the t max of the fed test was almost unchanged; and the C max and AUC 0-72 h showed no difference between fasting and fed conditions. It was confirmed that both formulations were well tolerated, and no new safety signals were observed., (© 2023, The American College of Clinical Pharmacology.)