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We implemented our method in R. We provide the codes and the bumblebee and black kite datasets in Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.47d7wm390 (Pasquaretta et al., 2015). The roe deer dataset was obtained from MOVEBANK (Wikelski & Kays, 2020). Animal Identifier: Sandro (M06), from Cagnacci et al. (2011) (https://www.movebank.org/). The wolf dataset was obtained from MOVEBANK (Wikelski & Kays, 2020), Animal identifier: Zimzik, from Kaczensky et al. (2006) (https://www.movebank.org/).We implemented our method in R. We provide the codes and the bumblebee and black kite datasets in Dryad Digital Repository https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.47d7wm390 (Pasquaretta et al., 2015). The roe deer dataset was obtained from MOVEBANK (Wikelski & Kays, 2020). Animal Identifier: Sandro (M06), from Cagnacci et al. (2011) (https://www.movebank.org/). The wolf dataset was obtained from MOVEBANK (Wikelski & Kays, 2020), Animal identifier: Zimzik, from Kaczensky et al. (2006) (https://www.movebank.org/).; International audience; 1. Understanding how animal movements change across space and time is a fundamental question in ecology. While classical analyses of trajectories give insightful descriptors of spatial patterns, a satisfying method for assessing the temporal succession of such patterns is lacking.2. Network analyses are increasingly used to capture properties of complex animal trajectories in simple graphical metrics. Here, building on this approach, we introduce a method that incorporates time into movement network analyses based on temporal sequences of network motifs.3. We illustrate our method using four example trajectories (bumblebee, black kite, roe deer, wolf) collected with different technologies (harmonic radar, platform terminal transmitter, global positioning system). First, we transformed each trajectory into a spatial network by defining the animal's coordinates as nodes and movements in between as edges. Second, we extracted temporal sequences of network motifs from each movement network and compared the resulting behavioural profiles to topological features of the original trajectory. Finally, we compared each sequence of motifs with simulated Brownian and Lévy random motions to statistically determine differences between trajectories and classical movement models.4. Our analysis of the temporal sequences of network motifs in individual movement networks revealed successions of spatial patterns corresponding to changes in behavioural modes that can be attributed to specific spatio‐temporal events of each animal trajectory. Future applications of our method to multi‐layered movement and social network analysis yield considerable promises for extending the study of complex movement patterns at the population level.

1. Bees are key pollinators and their widespread decline has raised considerable concerns regarding the sustainability of ecosystems and food production. Many environmental stressors do not directly kill bees, but they alter their physiology and behaviour, ultimately impacting colonies and populations. 2. This review considers the impact of parasites and pathogens on bee cognition. 3. First the main parasites and pathogens of bees are described, as well as how they modify the foraging behaviour, learning and memory of their hosts. 4. Next, the various defence mechanisms developed by bees to mitigate these effects at both the individual and collective levels are examined. 5. Finally, there is a discussion on how integrating research on host parasites, animal behaviour and cognition will provide a more detailed assessment of the contribution of parasites and pathogens to declines in the bee population and help to inform constructive ecological interventions.

The microsporidian Nosema ceranae is an emergent pathogen that threatens the health of honeybees and other pollinators all over the world. Its recent rapid spread across a wide variety of host species and environments demonstrated an enhanced ability of adaptation, which seems to contradict the lack of evidence for genetic recombination and the absence of a sexual stage in its life cycle. Here we retrieved fresh data of the patterns of genetic variation at the PTP2 locus in naturally infected Apis mellifera colonies, by means of single genome amplification. This technique, designed to prevent the formation of chimeric haplotypes during polymerase chain reaction (PCR), provides more reliable estimates of the diversity levels and haplotype structure than standard PCR-cloning methods. Our results are consistent with low but significant rates of recombination in the history of the haplotypes detected: estimates of the population recombination rate are of the order of 30 and support recent evidence for unexpectedly high levels of variation of the parasites within honeybee colonies. These observations suggest the existence of a diploid stage at some point in the life cycle of this parasite and are relevant for our understanding of the dynamics of its expanding population.

Summary Infection of honeybees by the microsporidian Nosema ceranae is considered to be one of the factors underlying the increased colony losses and decreased honey production seen in recent years. However, these effects appear to differ in function of the climatic zone, the distinct beekeeping practices and the honeybee species employed. Here, we compared the response of Apis mellifera iberiensis worker bees to experimental infection with field isolates of N. ceranae from an Oceanic climate zone in Northern Europe (Netherlands) and from a Mediterranean region of Southern Europe (Spain). We found a notable but non-significant trend (P = 0.097) towards higher honeybee survival for bees infected with N. ceranae from the Netherlands, although no differences were found between the two isolates in terms of anatomopathological lesions in infected ventricular cells or the morphology of the mature and immature stages of the parasite. In addition, the population genetic survey of the N. ceranae PTP3 locus revealed high levels of genetic diversity within each isolate, evidence for meiotic recombination, and no signs of differentiation between the Dutch and Spanish populations. A cross-infection study is needed to further explore the differences in virulence observed between the two N. ceranae populations in field conditions.