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Recent developments in evolutionary biology have led to a call for an extension of standard evolutionary theory, with its emphasis on processes such as selection and drift, into a much larger theoretical framework that includes processes such as niche construction, developmental plasticity, inclusive inheritance, and developmental bias. Skeptics argue that these processes are already subsumed within the standard theory and thus an extension is not required. Here, we outline what this evolutionary "rethink" might mean for the study of human origins. Specifically, can paleoanthropologists benefit from an extended theoretical toolkit? The papers in this special issue suggest it can be useful but may not be necessary, depending on the kinds of questions that are being asked.

Standard theory for cross-country productivity comparisons assumes all countries use the same factor inputs in production. This assumption is violated when including natural resources, such as oil, gas and gold, because countries do not extract the full set of resources. In this paper we propose a solution by viewing it as a ‘missing goods’ problem and assigning missing inputs a reservation price equal to the world resource price. We show that this has a substantial impact on relative productivity levels for countries heavily reliant on natural resources for generating their income. Under our new productivity measure, resource-rich countries are no longer uncommonly productive.

Proto-Germanic *fingraz ‘finger’ – long connected to PIE *penkʷe ‘5’, but without a convincing derivational scenario – can be interpreted as *pēnkʷ-ro-, a genitival R(V)-o- vrddhi derivative to *penkʷerom ‘set of 5’. This latter form is the substantivization of *penkʷero- ‘5-fold, counting 5’ – a form belonging to a series of de-numeral adjectives which, it is argued, is the single type underlying the Baltic pluralia tantum numerals (Lith. penkeri ‘5.pl.tant’) and the Slavic collectives and distributives (PSl. *petero ‘group of 5’, *peterъ ‘5-fold’). It is further hypothesized that (Post-)PIE forms like *penkwero-, *sweḱsero-, *septmmero- need not rest upon false segmentation of a thematic derivative of ‘4’ (*kwetwer-o-), as is most commonly assumed; rather, they can be explained as simple thematic derivatives of an *-er locative of the type *penkʷer ‘in/on/at 5’ = ‘in a group of 5’ (a close parallel of this semantic relationship is provided by Lith. arch. trisu ‘3.loc’ = ‘in a group of 3’, or even by French a trois). The posited type *penkʷer also yields a back-formed substantive *penkʷōr ‘set of 5-s’, a possible source of the Tocharian B distributive numerals in -ār (piśār ‘by 5-s’ << *penkʷōr-en, *penkʷōr-i or similar), which – being athematic – cannot be explained via the standard theory starting from *kʷetwer-o-.

Self-identity often predicts behavioural intentions after standard theory of planned behaviour (TPB) components are accounted for (Rise, Sheeran, & Hukkelberg, 2010). However, Fishbein and Ajzen (2010) claim this is due to conceptual similarity between self-identity and perceived importance of the behaviour. We examined this claim within the context of recycling food waste. Participants (N = 113) completed questionnaires assessing intentions, attitude, perceived behavioural control, perceived norms, perceived importance, self-identity, and past behaviour. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that self-identity and perceived importance were distinct constructs. Further, after accounting for TPB components and perceived importance, self-identity explained a significant amount of additional variance in intentions. The present findings therefore do not support Fishbein and Ajzen’s (2010) argument against the predictive utility of self-identity.

We investigate newsvendor ordering behavior under competition. We present a laboratory experiment that documents the behavioral ordering regularities in competitive newsvendor environments, and an analytical model extending the standard theory of newsvendor competition by including an optimal best-response policy for competing with a behaviorally biased newsvendor. We test the effectiveness of this policy using an out-of-sample experiment and find that it results in improved market share, service level and profitability

In a hold-up experiment designed to test theoretical predictions following from Hart (1995) and deMeza/Lockwood (1998) regarding investment behavior Sonnemans et al. (2001) (SOS) find only a partial confirmation of theory. According to SOS these deviations from standard theory can be explained by positive reciprocal behavior. In this paper, we replicate the experiment by SOS and add another group of treatments in which asset ownership is endogenized by auctioning off the assets. Our experiment shows that the results by SOS crucially depend on the ownership structure being exogenously assigned by the experimenter. We present experimental evidence that, by and large, corroborates the theoretical predictions made by Hart (1995).

By determining access to limited resources, social dominance is often an important determinant of fitness. Thus, if heritable, standard theory predicts mean dominance should evolve. However, dominance is usually inferred from the tendency to win contests, and given one winner and one loser in any dyadic contest, the mean proportion won will always equal 0.5. Here, we argue that the apparent conflict between quantitative genetic theory and common sense is resolved by recognition of indirect genetic effects (IGEs). We estimate selection on, and genetic (co)variance structures for, social dominance, in a wild population of red deer Cervus elaphus, on the Scottish island of Rum. While dominance is heritable and positively correlated with lifetime fitness, contest outcomes depend as much on the genes carried by an opponent as on the genotype of a focal individual. We show how this dependency imposes an absolute evolutionary constraint on the phenotypic mean, thus reconciling theoretical predictions with common sense. More generally, we argue that IGEs likely provide a widespread but poorly recognized source of evolutionary constraint for traits influenced by competition.

Until recently, theirs was the standard theory. But von Fintel 2001 and Gillies 2007 present a problem for the standard semantics: they claim that it fails to explain the infelicity of certain sequences of counterfactuals, namely reverse Sobel sequences. Both von Fintel and Gillies propose alternative dynamic semantic theories that explain the infelicity of reverse Sobel sequences, and argue that we should trade in the standard semantics of counterfactuals for theirs. I will argue that we can and should explain the infelicity of reverse Sobel sequences without giving up the standard semantics. In §1, I present the Stalnaker-Lewis semantics. In §2, I introduce reverse Sobel sequences, outline the von Fintel and Gillies theories, and say how their theories predict the infelicity of reverse Sobel sequences. In §3, I give my own explanation of why reverse Sobel sequences are generally infelicitous. In §4, I argue that compared to the von Fintel and Gillies theories, my theory appeals to principles that are more independently motivated, and gives a better account of our judgments about sequences of counterfactuals. For instance, I argue that some reverse Sobel sequences are felicitous, and that

The customary treatments of diffusion-controlled reactions involve some approximate assumptions to reduce the problem to two molecules. It is possible, however, to set up the full hierarchy of equations for the distribution functions for all molecules and to investigate the approximations in a systematic way by expanding in appropriate parameters. We carry this out for the simple reaction X + X A and find the standard theory by omitting third and higher powers of the density. Another expansion, valid for fast diffusion but not confined to low density, is based on the hierarchy for correlation functions. Finally, an expansion for high densities is given, in which case the hierarchy can be solved although it does not terminate.

It is the purpose of this paper to show that the recent upsurge of critiques of the standard theory of comparative advant-ae (as expressedl in tize classicail Ricardian forms and in the highly refined neo-classical form) have far-reaching consequenices, not ontly theoretically1, but in the implications of the theories for policy and acftion in the concrete wvorld. This pap)er (leals only uwith what might be termed the nen-Ricar-dian critiques of the theory of comparative advantage wchich have their nmain strength in providing a sharp critique of both the Ricardian and neo-classical views. It is not intended to suiggest here that, as a consequence of the neoRicardian critique, all previous emrpip'ical and policy-oriented research hasbeen misleading. Rather the intention is to raise some new questions which uirgently requirc answers. MNuiich theoretical anid empirical work renains to be done to develop a fuill-fledged neo-Ricardian view.

According to standard investment theory, the current investments of more financially constrained firms should be smaller than those of less constrained firms with similar investment opportunities. In this paper, I develop a dynamic investment model in which the project value and the severity of financing constraints can vary over time. My results contradict standard theory. To preempt further financing risk in the future, severely constrained firms may engage in more active investment behavior even if they face relatively high additional financing costs at the time. My numerical example demonstrates that a relatively low probability of future risk is sufficient to cause such preemptive behavior.

Standard theory of planned behavior (TPB) questions to elicit salient behavioral beliefs may elicit instrumental consequences of behavior, and overlook affective consequences. Two hundred thirteen English adults (35 to 75 years of age) completed a questionnaire that contained closed measures of TPB constructs, and open-ended questions that asked not only about advantages and disadvantages, but also what respondents would like or enjoy and dislike or hate about being more physically active. Beliefs elicited by affective questions were associated more strongly with a closed affective attitude scale. Beliefs elicited by instrumental questions were associated more strongly with a closed instrumental attitude scale. Closed measures of the standard TPB variables explained 48% of the variance in intention to increase physical activity, while affective attitude explained an additional 11% of the variance. Applications of the TPB should consider affective and not just instrumental determinants of behavior.

This paper attempts to build on Hind’s hypothesis (1989) that the Roman invasion of AD 43 took place in Sussex, by examining the implications for the conquest campaign. It is suggested that the usual tactics of the Roman army and the size of the invading army are not consistent with the standard invasion campaign theory, in particular the events leading up to the so-called battle of the Medway. Other aspects of the evidence available to us are also inconsistent with the standard theory but can be explained in terms of a Sussex landing. The result is to offer further support for Hind's hypothesis.

The anecdotal case study tradition in psychoanalysis has a long, hallowed history and continues to seem the best way to describe our clinical encounters. But reliance on memory in the absence of witnesses or other kinds of corroboration (such as audio recording) can (a) protect standard theory from necessary corrections; (b) lead to the underreporting of technical mistakes, outright clinical failures, and, paradoxically, innovative approaches; (c) tempt us to substitute, by way of narrative smoothing, what ought to happen for what actually transpired; and (d) lead to the loss of an invaluable, one-of-a-kind set of observations that can never be replaced. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Clin Psychol 57: 37–41, 2001.

From the viewpoint of standard theory, firms have sometimes seemed to overcontrol pollution. However, Gordon (1990) and others have noted that the more diversified investors are the greater the degree of internalization of externalities. This paper explores the implications of diversification for the firm's choice of pollution in comparison with alternative explanations of voluntary pollution control, such as profit-seeking through regulatory influence, and altruism. The paper also addresses issues arising from the spatial aspects of pollution, and the relationship between stockholder and managerial incentives for pollution control. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Intuitive theories are defined as coherently interrelated systems of concepts that generate explanations and predictions in a particular domain of experience. 2 studies tested whether the child's theory of mind can be characterized as an intuitive theory. In Study 1, 3-year-old children who did not pass a false belief pretest were trained in 2 groups: (1) on the concept of belief, or (2) on the related concepts of desire and perception. Training took place over 2 weeks, with children given mental state tasks and receiving feedback according to their performance. Both training groups showed improved false belief performance on the posttest, compared to a control group trained on number conservation. This result is interpreted as demonstrating coherence in the child's theory of mind. In Study 2, these findings were repeated and expanded: training on belief as well as training on desire and perception resulted in improved performance on a variety of standard theory of mind posttests. Results are discussed with respect to competing theories of children's intuitive psychological knowledge.

Product improvement means product behavior understanding; Acquisition process begs for it. Needed: more focus and vision on product performance: Without it, at best incremental improvement; With it, the bigger, better view for system Continuous Process Improvement (CPI). Here is a new & improved view.

Common sense sometimes predicts events to be likely or unlikely rather than merely possible. We extend methods of qualitative reasoning to predict the relative likelihoods of possible qualitative behaviors by viewing the dynamics of a system as a Markov chain over its transition graph. This involves adding qualitative or quantitative estimates of transition probabilities to each of the transitions and applying the standard theory of Markov chains to distinguish persistent states from transient states and to calculate recurrence times, settling times, and probabilities for ending up in each state. Much of the analysis depends solely on qualitative estimates of transition probabilities, which follow directly from theoretical considerations and which lead to qualitative predictions about entire classes of systems. Quantitative estimates for specific systems are derived empirically and lead to qualitative and quantitative conclusions, most of which are insensitive to small perturbations in the estimated transition probabilities. The algorithms are straightforward and efficient. Le sens commun permet parfois de predire des evenements comme etant probables ou improbables plutot que possibles. Des methodes de raisonnement qualitatif sont utilisees pour predire la probabilitye relative de comportements qualitatifs possibles en considerant la dynamique ?un systeme comme une chaine de Markov superposeee a son graphe de transition. Cela necessite ľaddition dcaron;ealuations qualitatives et quantitatives de probabilityes de transition a chacune des transitions et ľapplication de la theorie des chaines de Markov afin de distinguer les etats permanents des etats transitoires et de calculer le temps de recurrence, le temps ?etablissement et les probabilites de se retrouver dans chaque etat. Une bonne partie de ľanalyse repose sur des evaluations qualitatives des probabilityes de transition, qui decoulent directement de considerations theoriques et qui resultent en des previsions qualitatives concernant des classes entieres de systemes. Les evaluations quantitatives de systemes specifiques sont obtenues de maniere empirique et conduisent a des conclusions qualitatives et quantitatives, qui pour la plupart sont insensibles a de faibles perturbations des probabilityes de transition evaluees. Les algorithmes sont precis et efficaces.

It is now widely recognised that the distortions common in many developing countries lead to a bias against exporting. In consequence many governments have begun to provide export incentives aimed at compensating for this bias. This article begins by examining the range of such incentives offered in South-East Asian countires. It then goes on to use the standard theory of the second-best to develop a simple framework within which these policies can be assessed. The difficulties encountered in constructing a system of export incentives that will not introduce distortions of their own are highlighted. The constraints imposed by GATT obligations are also noted.

We have studied the effective Zf1f2-vertex in the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg theory arising from 1-loop corrections, allowing for arbitrary fermion masses mi in the loop. We use our results to study the branching ratio of the Z-boson decay into two different fermions. This is of phenomenological interest if there exist yet unknown fermions with large mass which could show up at present and designed accelerators only through radiative corrections. Effektiver flavor-andernder schwacher neutraler Strom in der Standard-Theorie und Z-Boson-Zerfall Wir untersuchen den durch 1-loop-Korrekturen entstehenden Zf1f2-Vertex in der Glashow-Salam-Weinberg-Theorie. Im Loop sind beliebige Fermionmassen zugelassen. Die Resultate werden benutzt, um das Verzweigungsverhaltnis fur den Z-Boson-Zerfall in zwei unterschiedliche Fermionen zu untersuchen. Diese Zerfallsmode ist von phanomenologischem Interesse bei der Suche nach unbekannten Fermionen sehr groser Masse, die an derzeitigen und geplanten Beschleunigern nur durch Strahlungskorrekturen nachweisbar sein werden.

This article extends the standard theory of the producer cooperative firm to the case of production under condition of risk

Starting out from the observation that both imports and exports may be viewed as the difference between domestic consumption (use) and production, static standard theory of biases in consumption and production indices is brought to bear upon trade indices: Laspeyres tends to overrate when applied to imports and to underrate when applied to exports; for Paasche, the opposite holds true. Hence, terms of trade tend to be underrated (exaggerated) when based upon Laspeyres (Paasche) price indices. The problem of extending these conclusions to the case of changes in production frontiers and preference maps is discussed. When homotheticity is absent, correlation between price and quantity relatives may upset the simple conclusions. This is of special importance in the large-country situation. Dynamics further complicate the situation. A cobweb mechanism in exports may thus reverse the static results.

The thermopower of a Bi single crystal is measured at temperatures below 8 K and in longitudinal magnetic fields up to 0.014 T. The change of the thermopower α(B) due to the magnetic field isfound to be negative below about 5K and positive above. This behaviour can be understood on the basis of the standard theory of the phonon-drag thermopower and the temperature dependence of partial thermopowers can be estimated. [Russian Text Ignored]

This paper presents some results arising out of the collaboration during 1974–1980 between an ornithologist (the first author) and a statistician. Attention is focussed on the question as to whether Tables 1 and 2 provide sufficient evidence for the existence of effects of recreation upon the numbers of oyster-catcher nests and on the estimation of these effects by means of confidence intervals. The main tool is the standard theory for constructing conditional tests for multiparameter exponential families. The authors try to give a very careful description of the methodological aspects of their case. Many different probabilistic models can be proposed. Accordingly the statistical problems concerning tests and confidence intervals admit different mathematical formulations and (or) solutions. It is now apparent that, during their collaboration, the authors did not always make the most appropriate choice of models and procedures. They went through several stages before arriving at the choices which are basic to the sections 2, …, 5. By outlining these stages in Section 6 and mentioning the methodological errors which were committed they hope that readers will beware of similar pitfalls.

A number of recent papers have developed a variety of ways of overcoming the free-rider problem. This essay presents a survey and exposition of these contributions and suggests that the free-rider problem is a statement of the incompleteness of the standard theory rather than a description of the world. Misallocation of resources is not inevitable in a public-goods economy.

The piezoelectric behavior of certain biological materials (bone and tendon) was studied by comparing them with well-understood piezoelectric ceramics (quartz and tourmaline). The results show that, whereas the ceramic model materials conform to the standard theory of piezoelectricity in both compression and bending, the organic materials deviate quantitatively and qualitatively in bending. An extension of the formal theory is developed to include a polarization proportional to the gradient of the stress and yields predictions in accord with the experimental findings for bone and tendon. Implications for transducers competing with electrical ceramics are noted.