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Schizophrenia is a chronic and often severe mental disorder for which antipsychotic drugs are the cornerstone of treatment. Although the essential mechanism of action of these drugs has not changed much since they were first discovered in the 1950s, there have been numerous advances in the context in which these drugs are prescribed, as well as in the considerations for their optimal use. In this review, we summarize five selected issues in which the psychopharmacological treatment of schizophrenia has most evolved. Namely, these are the shift of outcomes of interest from symptoms to recovery, the development of stratified approaches to select the most appropriate treatment for each individual, the recognition of treatment nonadherence as a critical factor determining outcomes, the recommendations for maintenance treatment, and, finally, the promise of new antipsychotic compounds that innovate in their mechanisms of action, improving efficacy/safety profiles. Finally, we discuss how some of these advances have already delivered to improved outcomes in the real world, whereas others have demonstrated efficacy under optimal circumstances yet have not been translated into better outcomes in the community. Thus, the road ahead includes both identifying novel treatments that engage the psychopathology of the illness and improve the efficacy/tolerability profile of currently available agents, as well as developing interventions that mitigate the barriers for the use of novel interventions, some of them already existing, in the real world., Competing Interests: J.R. has received honoraria from TEVA pharmaceuticals and Janssen, royalties from UpToDate, and grant support from Alkermes. J.K. has received honoraria from Alkermes, Allergan, Dainippon Sumitomo, H. Lundbeck, Indivior, Intracellular Therapies, Janssen Pharmaceutical, Johnson & Johnson, LB Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Minerva, Neurocrine, Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Otsuka, Reviva, Roche, Saladex, Sunovion, Takeda, Teva; grant support from Otsuka, Lundbeck, Sunovion, and Janssen; is a shareholder of the Vanguard Research Group, LB Pharmaceuticals Inc., and North Shore Therapeutics; and receives royalties from UptoDate., (© 2022 The Authors. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences Reports published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology.)

Background: Burden related to major depressive disorder (MDD) derives mostly from long-term occurrence of symptoms. This study aims to examine the prevalence, sociodemographic correlates, patterns of 12-month and lifetime psychiatric comorbidity, lifetime risk factors, psychosocial functioning, and mental health service utilization of chronic major depressive disorder (CMDD) compared to nonchronic major depressive disorder., Methods: Face-to-face interviews were conducted in the 2001-2002 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (n = 43,093)., Results: The 12-month and lifetime prevalence of CMDD within the population meeting criteria for MDD was 26.5% and 24.0%, respectively. Individuals reporting a chronic course of MDD were socioeconomically and educationally disadvantaged, tended to be older, report loss of spouse or history of divorce, live in rural areas, have public assistance, low self-esteem, worse overall health and more likely to report comorbidities, most importantly dysthymia, generalized anxiety disorder, avoidant, and dependant personality disorder. Individuals with chronic MDD were more likely to report familial but not childhood onset risk factors for MDD. Those suffering CMDD were more likely to seek and receive mental health care than other forms of MDD, even though it took longer to start treatment., Conclusion: Chronic course of MDD is related to still worse socioeconomic conditions, educational achievement, more comorbidities, and family risk factors, although other courses of MDD carried greater risk of unmet treatment., (© 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)