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Objective Evaluate center of mass (CoM) displacement values during four-limb and three-limb standing with limb suspension in dogs before and after applying sensory stimulation to a forelimb or hindlimb. Study design Experimental study. Animals Six clinically normal beagles. Methods A four force-plate apparatus was built to assess static weight distribution. Dogs stood on the device with one limb in contact with each force plate. We created a plastic device to induce sensory stimulation so that lameness could not be detected visually when stimulating the paw. Experimenters confirmed the degree of lameness by walking before and after measurement. Body-weight shifts were induced via suspension of each limb and transient sensory stimulation to the right forelimb or left hindlimb. CoMs of five postures were compared, with and without transient sensory stimulation. Results The four-limb CoM was located cranial to the center of the X- and Y-axis coordinates (X: -0.82 ± 9.12, Y: 61.00 ± 5.82). During three-limb standing with suspension of either forelimb, CoM shifted backward toward the contralateral side compared to four-limb standing. During hindlimb suspension, CoM shifted to the contralateral side. With right forelimb sensory stimulation, there were large CoM changes for both four-limb and three-limb standing (X: -34.53 ± 9.09, Y: 52.21 ± 6.88). CoM changes were small with left hindlimb sensory stimulation (X: 6.47 ± 13.86, Y: 69.41 ± 5.55). Conclusion CoMs during four-limb and three-limb standing were influenced by sensory stimulation of a forelimb and, to a lesser extent, of a hindlimb. Clinical significance Static evaluation of CoM may aid clinicians in the diagnosis and recovery of forelimb lameness.

A 9-year-old Irish sports horse gelding was anaesthetised out-of-hours for management of digital flexor tendon sheath sepsis after a left hind foot penetration. In the postanaesthetic period, the patient manifested a right forelimb non-weight bearing lameness. Diagnostic imaging and serum biochemistry were unremarkable. The animal progressively deteriorated and became recumbent. After consultation with the owner, euthanasia was performed on welfare grounds. A postmortem examination was performed to establish the cause of the right forelimb lameness. After excluding all other probable causes of postanaesthetic lameness, it was concluded that the patient manifested a postanaesthetic compartmental syndrome due to haemorrhage associated with the ulnar nerve developed intraoperatively. This case report discusses factors associated with increased anaesthetic-related mortality in elective surgical procedures performed out-of-hours, other causes of postanaesthetic forelimb lameness and diagnosis of, and treatment options for, brachial compartment syndrome.

This study focuses on a case of a red-howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) which was found with a fetus in a transverse lie position with a prolapsed arm. The topic of this research is well justified as there are no data on this condition involving this type of non-human primate in literature. In this study, a red-howler monkey was observed by locals pulling at her pelvic region for 3 days near a farm. On the third day, the monkey was found lying on the ground at which point she offered no resistance when approached. The environmental police took the monkey to receive medical attention. During the physical examination, it was quickly observed that the monkey was pregnant; the right forelimb of the fetus was exposed from the vulva. An ultrasound revealed a non-viable fetus, and due to the severe weakness of the mother, we opted for euthanasia. During the necropsy, not only was the fetus found macerated but it was also in a transverse lie position with a prolapsed arm and presented no external or internal injuries consistent with trauma.

Foot abscessation is an extremely common cause of acute, often severe, lameness in horses. Despite the frequency with which owners, farriers and veterinary surgeons are presented with horses with this problem, there is a surprising paucity of studies concerning foot abscessation in the veterinary literature, with much of what we ‘know’ being referenced back to textbooks and attributed to personal opinion and experience. An epidemiological study by Cole and colleagues1 is summarised on p 251 of this issue of Vet Record . In this paper, the authors aim to describe the clinical features of equine subsolar abscess cases from the clinical population of their practice and to determine the factors that are associated with increased number of veterinary visits, prolonged treatment and complications. This work is important for the equine practitioner, given how commonly we are presented with horses with this condition. It also is important to the equine industry on a wider scale, as a prolonged treatment period equates to days lost from training or competition. Also, the welfare implications of this often extremely painful condition are obvious. The study by Cole and colleagues1 showed that subsolar abscesses are more common in forelimbs, with the right forelimb being the most …

Summary A Percheron mare was presented for acute, severe lameness and marked swelling of the right forelimb after being cast. The mare was initially diagnosed with cellulitis of the forelimb but as her condition improved and the affected limb was able to bear more weight it became apparent that the limb was hyperextended at the level of the carpus. Widening of the palmar aspect of the middle carpal joint was observed radiographically. During ultrasonographic examination, excessive fluid in the carpal sheath and perithecal swelling were noted and tearing of the palmar carpal ligament was suspected. A dynamic brace was fabricated to prevent hyperextension of the carpus. After discontinuation of systemic antibiotics, the mare became febrile and forelimb lameness worsened. Cytology of fluid from the middle carpal joint confirmed joint sepsis and the mare was anaesthetised for arthroscopic examination. A tear in the palmar carpal ligament, characterised by focal fibre disruption and fibrillation, was identified during arthroscopic and tenoscopic examination. Communication between the carpal flexor tendon sheath and middle carpal joint was identified during these procedures. Both the middle carpal joint and carpal flexor tendon sheath were lavaged with physiological saline solution. Post operatively, swelling and lameness slowly resolved. Four months after discharge, the mare was sufficiently sound to be maintained at pasture. Viewed from its lateral aspect, the limb no longer appeared to be hyperextended from the carpus.

SummaryReasons for performing study Current literature suggests that thermographic imaging of horses should be performed in a draught-free room. However, studies on the effect of airflow on determined temperature have not been published. Objectives To investigate effects of airflow on thermographically determined temperature of horses’ forelimbs; to assess the relationship of wind velocity, rectal temperature, ambient temperature and humidity. Methods Thermographic images were obtained for the forelimbs of 6 horses in a draught-free room. Three replicates (R) with defined wind velocities (R1, 0.5–1.0 m/s; R2, 1.3–2.6 m/s; and R3, 3.0–4.0 m/s) were conducted. Each replicate consisted of a baseline image, a 15 min phase with the wind on and a 15 min phase with the wind off. We exposed only the right leg to airflow and determined the temperature by thermography with the wind on and wind off. Temperature differences between baseline and wind on, between wind on and wind off and between different wind velocities were analysed by a general linear model, Student's paired t test and ANOVA. Results After the onset of wind, the temperature on the right forelimb decreased within 1–3 min (by approximately 0.6°C at R1, 1.5°C at R2 and 2.1°C at R3). With the wind off, the temperature increased within 3 min (by approximately 1.2°C at R1, 1.7°C at R2 and 2.1°C at R3). With increasing wind velocity, the temperature differences between baseline and wind on and between wind on and wind off increased significantly. Conclusions Barely noticeable wind velocities caused a decrease in thermographically determined temperatures of the forelimbs of the horse. Further research is required to assess the influence of airflow on other parts of the body and at different ambient temperatures, as well as the effect on horses with inflammatory lesions, especially of the distal limbs. Potential relevance It is essential for practitioners to perform thermography on horses in a draught-free environment in order to avoid false-positive or -negative diagnoses.

Summary Reasons for performing study: To determine if scapular fractures occur in racehorses with distinctive characteristics. Objectives: To test the hypothesis that Thoroughbred (TB) and Quarter Horse (QH) racehorses with a scapular fracture have similar characteristics that are different from those of their respective racetrack populations. Methods: Necropsy findings, case details, last race information and career earnings for TB and QH racehorses that had a scapular fracture in California between 1990 and 2008 were retrospectively compared between breeds. Horse signalment, career earnings, career starts and race characteristics were obtained for all California racehorses. Comparisons were made between affected horses, other racehorses that died, and all horses that raced, in California during the 19 year period. Results: Seventy-three TB and 28 QH racehorses had a similar, complete comminuted scapular fracture with an articular component, and right forelimb predilection. The QHs had a higher incidence of scapular fracture incurred during racing than TBs (0.98 vs. 0.39/1000 starters). The TB and QH incident rates for musculoskeletal deaths incurred racing were 20.5 and 17.5/1000 starters, respectively; however, a greater proportion of TB musculoskeletal deaths occurred training (40% vs. 8%). Horses with a scapular fracture were more likely to be male and aged 2 or ≥5 years than the racetrack population. Most affected QHs (64%) were 2-year-olds; most TBs (74%) were aged ≥3 years. Scapular fractures occurred more commonly during racing in QHs (70%) than TBs (44%). Race-related scapular fracture was more likely to occur in a Maiden race than in a non-Maiden race. Horses with a scapular fracture had fewer career starts than the racetrack population. Conclusions and potential relevance: Despite breed differences for signalment and exercise distances, both breeds incur a complete scapular fracture that is more likely to occur in the right scapula of young and older, male racehorses, early in their race career or after few races. Quarter Horses sustain a catastrophic scapular fracture more frequently than TBs.

Reason for performing study Saddle pads are widely used in riding sports but their influence on saddle pressures is poorly understood. Objective To evaluate the forces acting on the horse's back, and the eventual pressure distribution by using different saddle pads underneath a fitting saddle. Methods Sixteen sound horses of different breeds and ages were ridden on a treadmill at walk and sitting trot. The horses were wearing a dressage saddle with a fitting saddle tree and 4 different saddle pads (gel, leather, foam and reindeer fur) successively. For comparison, measurements were made without any saddle pad. Right forelimb motion was used to synchronise the pressure data with the stride cycles. A pressure mat was used under the saddle pad to collect the kinetic data. Maximum overall force (MOF) and the pressure distribution in longitudinal and transversal direction were calculated to identify differences between the measurements with and without saddle pads. Results A significant decrease in MOF was interpreted as improved saddle fit, and a significant increase as worsened saddle fit. Only the reindeer fur pad significantly decreased the MOF from 1005 N to 796 N at walk and from 1650 N to 1437 N at trot compared to without pad measurements. None of the saddle pads increased the MOF significantly when compared to the data without saddle pad. The pressure distribution in longitudinal and transversal direction was also improved significantly only by the reindeer fur pad at trot compared to no pad. Conclusion This study demonstrated that a well chosen saddle pad can reduce the load on the horse's back and therefore improve the suitability of a fitting saddle.

On examination, there was a 1.2 cm ulcer in the centre of the digital pad of the fourth digit of the right forelimb. The dog was anaesthetised, and biopsies from the ulcer were obtained and were submitted for histopathological examination and bacterial culture.There was no bacterial growth from the tissue and the pathology report suggested an uncomplicated ulcer with no evidence of underlying neoplasia.

The object of this study was to obtain the anatomic and morphometric data required for biomechanical analyses of the forelimb in dogs. Following the euthanasia of four healthy, adult, crossbred dogs, 44 muscles of the right forelimb were identified and meticulously removed. Morphometric data for all muscles were collected and physiologic cross-sectional areas (PCSA) and architectural indices (AI) were calculated. The coordinates of the origin and insertion of each muscle were determined using orthogonal, right-handed coordinate systems embedded in the scapula, humerus, and radius-ulna. The PCSA and AI were calculated for all the muscles and coordinates for the origins and insertions of these muscles were determined. Results provide the morphometric and anatomic data necessary for three-dimensional biomechanical studies of the forelimb in dogs. J. Morphol. 263:107–117, 2005. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Male (n = 6/group) and female (n = 6/group) kittens were gonadectomized at 7 weeks (prepuberally) or 7 months of age (postpuberally), or left intact. Lateral radiographic projections of the right forelimb were made from 4 months of age until the distal radial physis was closed, or 24 months of age. In males, distal radial physeal closure was delayed in both groups of gonadectomized animals, compared to intact males (p < 0.01). In females, proximal radial physeal closure was significantly delayed in prepuberally gonadectomized animals (p = 0.02), and distal radial physeal closure was significantly delayed in both groups of gonadectomized animals, compared to intact animals (p < 0.01). Final radial length (females p < 0.01, males p = 0.01), and age and radial length at time of the growth plateau (p < 0.01) were significantly increased in all gonadectomized animals. Age at gonadectomy had no effect on age and radial length at time of the growth plateau. No puberal growth spurt was observed in any of the cats.

We describe the clinical findings and radiographic abnormalities of a horse with a bipartite distal phalanx and a bipartite navicular bone of the right forelimb. Associated findings including suspected keratoma and degenerative joint disease of the distal interphalangeal joint are described and possible etiologies are discussed.

This report describes the use of computed tomography (CT) to evaluate the tympanic bullae and angular processes of the mandible in a West Highland White Terrier with craniomandibular osteopathy. The patient presented initially for swelling of the right forelimb. The report illustrates the use of computed tomography for evaluation of craniomandibular osteopathy, initial presentation with longbone pathology, and remarkable resolution of osseous changes.

Introduction Kinematic studies allow the assessment of variations in body position during jumping. This study evaluated changes in kinematic variables in horses during a jumping test. Methods Eight horses equipped with reflective skin markers were submitted to a jumping test consisting of 70 jumps in 4 series of 10, 15, 20 and 25 times each over a 1.10 m vertical obstacle. Six jumps per series were recorded; a heart rate of ≤ 90 bpm was the criterion to begin the next series. A 25 Hz calibrated camera was placed 10 m from the fence, and 2D images were analyzed. The variables were: overtracking at jumping; take-off and landing distances; jump length; distance between lowest point of the fore and hind limb and the fence; height of head, withers and croup in relation to the ground when passing the fence; and maximum withers height at jumping. Data were analysed with an ANOVA with a post-hoc Tukey test (P

Two adult Piedmontese cross cows from a group of 180 were examined for right forelimb lameness. The farmer had treated them with long-acting oxytetracycline (Engemycin LA; Intervet, 1 ml/kg) after a diagnosis of interdigital dermatitis (foul). The first cow was 9/10 lame, with an interdigital

A 5-year-old, spayed female boxer dog presented to the referring veterinarian with a year-long history of swelling, ulceration and pain in the pawpad of the fourth digit of the right forelimb. Histologically, the pawpad was expanded by a mass composed of small polygonal cells forming broad bands and trabeculae within the lower epidermis that often infiltrated and replaced the overlying keratinocytes and that extended into the dermis. Lobules of eccrine glands within the deep dermis occasionally had one or more eccrine ducts that were lined by neoplastic ductal epithelial cells that formed papillary projections lined by one to two layers of neoplastic cells. Approximately 1 month after amputation of the fourth digit pad, several smaller nodular masses developed in multiple digital pads and the metacarpal pad of the same paw. All of the neoplasms were histologically identical to eccrine poroma (juxtaepidermal acrospiroma), a common benign neoplasm in humans that originates from the acrosyringium and upper dermal duct of eccrine glands. To the authors' knowledge this is the first report documenting an eccrine poroma in a dog.

Ten female goats were trained in avoidance flexion of the right forelimb. The subjects' qualitative and quantitative activity was recorded. When the first and last tenths of training were compared, there were significant increases in the overall frequency of responding during periods of conditional stimulus impingement and in the overall variety of behaviours, omitting flexion and emotional behaviours, during inter-trial intervals. There were significant decreases in the variety of emotional behaviours during both signal periods and intervals, in the frequency of flexion responses during intervals, and in the frequency of emotional responses during signal periods. The data do not support the assertion that late in avoidance training the organism is quiescent and is mechanically emitting only the conditioned responses to the conditional stimulus.