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We used a laboratory preparation to evaluate the claim that equivalence-based instruction (EBI) is an efficient form of instruction due to eliminating the need for emergent relations to be taught. Three groups of college students received training to establish 3 stimulus classes with 4 members in each class. Two groups received either a linear series (EBI-LS) or a 1-to-many training structure (EBI-OTM group). A control group received complete instruction (CI) that targeted all possible relations between the members of each class. The EBI-OTM group required fewer trials to complete instruction compared to CI, whereas EBI-LS did not. The EBI-OTM and the CI groups performed equally well on a posttest that followed initial attainment of the mastery criterion, whereas the EBI-LS group performed more poorly than the other 2. The groups' performance on a function transfer test did not differ. The results support the claim that compared to CI, EBI is an efficient form of instruction when it follows an OTM structure. However, they also suggest this efficiency advantage cannot be attributed to the fewer relations that need to be taught in EBI, as the EBI-OTM and the EBI-LS groups were trained on the same number of relations.

Murray Sidman's contributions to the science of behavior span many areas including avoidance behavior, coercion and its effects, stimulus control, errorless learning, programmed learning, stimulus equivalence, and single-subject methodology. He was also a great mentor to many and helped shape the discipline we now call behavior analysis. In this memoriam, we briefly highlight his scholarly legacy and share some personal anecdotes.

Background. Virtual reality (VR) simulators for surgical training might possess the properties needed for basic training in laparoscopy. Evidence for training efficacy of VR has been investigated by research of varying quality over the past decade. Objective. To review randomized controlled trials regarding VR training efficacy compared with traditional or no training, with outcome measured as surgical performance in humans or animals. Data sources. In June 2011 Medline, Embase, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science and Google Scholar were searched using the following medical subject headings (MeSh) terms: Laparoscopy/standards, Computing methodologies, Programmed instruction, Surgical procedures, Operative, and the following free text terms: Virtual real* OR simulat* AND Laparoscop* OR train* Limits: Controlled trials. Study eligibility criteria. All randomized controlled trials investigating the effect of VR training in laparoscopy, with outcome measured as surgical performance. Methods. A total of 98 studies were screened, 26 selected and 12 included, with a total of 241 participants. Results. Operation time was reduced by 17–50% by VR training, depending on simulator type and training principles. Proficiency-based training appeared superior to training based on fixed time or fixed numbers of repetition. Simulators offering training for complete operative procedures came out as more efficient than simulators offering only basic skills training. Conclusions. Skills in laparoscopic surgery can be increased by proficiency-based procedural VR simulator training. There is substantial evidence (grade IA – IIB) to support the use of VR simulators in laparoscopic training.

We evaluated the effects of different intertrial intervals (ITIs; time between programmed learning opportunities) on the acquisition and generalization of 2 preschoolers' social skills. Independent and generalized skills were observed only when the daily ITI was gradually increased from short to progressively longer intervals.

College students in a psychology research-methods course learned concepts related to inferential statistics and hypothesis decision making. One group received equivalence-based instruction on conditional discriminations that were expected to promote the emergence of many untaught, academically useful abilities (i.e., stimulus equivalence group). A negative control group received no instruction, and a positive (complete instruction) control group received instruction on all possible relations (those taught to, and emerging untaught in, the stimulus equivalence group). On posttests, the stimulus equivalence group performed as well as the positive control group (and both outperformed the negative control group), but those in the equivalence-based instruction condition achieved this outcome with significantly less training, thereby demonstrating the efficiency of equivalence-based instruction. Social validity measures indicated that participants found the instruction to be beneficial and as enjoyable as traditional teaching methods.

The use of procedures which minimise the making of errors is a popular method of teaching skills to people with learning disability. The origin of this approach can be traced to two distinct sources: the work of B.F. Skinner on programmed learning, and the work of H.S. Terrace on discrimination learning. This early work is reviewed and research findings which highlight the negative side affects of an ‘errorless’ approach are discussed. The role of prompting, attention, reinforcement and generalisation is outlined. Recommendations for the development of teaching programmes are made.

A system of self-instruction in histology is described, using audio-tape and booklet instruction to supplement the microscopical examination of tissue sections. A pilot test demonstrated a slight superiority in retention of knowledge among students using this system, compared with those in the conventional class.

Although greeting parents by name facilitates subsequent parent-teacher communication, baseline measures revealed that 4 preschool teachers never or rarely greeted parents by name during morning check-in. To promote frequent and accurate use of parents' names by teachers, the effects of a fully automated computerized assessment and programmed instruction (CAPI) intervention were evaluated in a multiple baseline design. The CAPI intervention involved assessment and training of relations among parents' and children's pictures and names, and produced rapid learning of parent names. The CAPI intervention also resulted in substantial improvements in the classroom use of parents' names for 3 of the 4 teachers; however, a supervisor-mediated feedback package (consisting of instructions, differential reinforcement, and error correction) was necessary to maintain name use for 2 of those teachers. The practical strengths and limitations of computer-based teacher training are discussed.

Zusammenfassung Hintergrund: Elektronische Medien spielen in der medizinischen Ausbildung eine zunehmende Rolle. Es stellt sich die Frage, wie Computerlernprogramme im Vergleich zu innovativen didaktischen Konzepten im Prasenzunterricht abschneiden. Methoden: An der Untersuchung nahmen 26 Studierende teil. In einem speziellen Studienmodul „Dermatoonkologie” im Rahmen eines integrierten medizinischen Curriculums wurde ein Teil des Stoffs in Form von Team-Learning als Prasenzveranstaltung vermittelt, der andere Teil dagegen als Internet-basiertes Computer-based-Training. Die Ergebnisse der nachfolgenden Multiple-Choice-Prufung wurden in dieser Hinsicht statistisch ausgewertet. Ergebnisse: Die Prufungsergebnisse waren bei jenen Fragen, die sich auf Computer-based Trainings-Inhalte bezogen, mit 90,4 ± 12,5 % richtigen Antworten signifikant besser als bei jenen, die sich aus dem Stoff des Team-Learning rekrutiert hatten (80,6 ± 13,1 %; p

This investigation evaluated the importance of frequent responding in computer-based programmed instruction. Instructional computer programs that taught the use of an authoring language were administered to 155 undergraduate college students. One group experienced frequent (dense) situations requiring them to supply key components of the subject taught. A second group experienced half as many response requirements, and a third ‘‘passive’’ group simply tapped any key to progress. To control for time in contact with presentations, individuals in a fourth group were yoked to the members of the highdensity requirement group. Statistically significant differences on both posttest and application performances indicated that students who experienced the high density of overt response contingencies scored the best and the passive group score the worst. The yoked control revealed that time on task alone could not account for the superior performance of students in the high-density group. Results suggest that inclusion of a high rate of constructed-response contingencies within instructional computer programs increases performance. DESCRIPTORS: programmed instruction, computer-based instruction, interaction, constructed response, contingency

Imposed postfeedback delays promote discrimination training; the present experiments determined whether they also improve performance in programmed instruction. In two experiments, college students completed 45 sets of Holland and Skinner's (1961) programmed text on behavior analysis in a computerized format in a three-component multiple schedule. In Experiment 1, the conditions were (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10-s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10-s delay after each question answered incorrectly (contingent delay). Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay and contingent delay. To determine whether performance increased in the noncontingent delay condition because subjects studied the material during delay periods, Experiment 2 tested three conditions: (a) no delay between questions, (b) a 10-s delay after each question (noncontingent delay), and (c) a 10-s delay after each question with the screen blank during the delay period. Noncontingent delay produced better performance than no delay, but there was no difference in performance between no delay and noncontingent delay with blank screen. Hence, noncontingent delay improved performance because students used delay periods to study. Furthermore, subjects preferred noncontingent delay to the other conditions, and session time increased only slightly.

Summary. Eighteen of 22 students in a problem-based curriculum and 62 of 79 students in a traditional curriculum at the same medical school completed a survey 10 weeks after completing Part I of the National Boards. The survey asked students to report the average time they had spent each week during the first 2 years of medical school preparing for the Part I examination. Students were also asked to rate the usefulness of a variety of learning resources. The purpose of the survey was to compare the preparation activities of students in the two curricula. The results of the survey revealed that students in the problem-based curriculum tended to study many more hours for Part I than did students in the traditional curriculum, especially during their second year. The results also found problem-based curriculum students tended to rate textbooks and the PreTest Series as more valuable than did their peers in the traditional curriculum. The effects of the format and goals of the two curricula on the students' preparation activities are explored.

Summary. This paper describes the development of a printed distance learning programme by a coordinated team approach. The programme has two components, a resource book and three patient management problem leaflets or challenges and is designed to update general dental practitioners on the management of fissure caries. It includes strategies to meet the educational needs of three groups of general dental practitioners with different educational requirements. It is concluded that the approach described meets the CRISIS criteria for effective continuing education and offers a useful approach to distance learning in dentistry.

The educational effectiveness of illustrations, visual-based instructional media, programmed learning, computer assisted learning, audio-tutorial instruction, organization of groups, and mastery learning strategies, are discussed. Attention is drawn to those aspects which produce educationally significant improvements in student performance. It is suggested that this research, which clearly indicates a variety of ways in which levels of attainment can be greatly enhanced, is being ignored in new curriculum developments. The author concludes that the improvements sought by educationists and politicians will not be achieved until the knowledge gained from many years of research is acted upon.

Summary We describe the construction of a computer based system for instruction and assessment in pharmacology, utilizing a large bank of multiple choice questions. Items were collected from many sources, edited and coded for student suitability, topic, taxonomy and difficulty and text references. Students reserve a time during the day, specify the type of test desired and questions are presented randomly from the subset satisfying their criteria. Answers are scored after each question and a summary given at the end of every test; details on item performance are recorded automatically. The biggest hurdle in implementation was the assembly, review, classification and editing of items, while the programming was relatively straightforward. A number of modifications had to be made to the initial plans and changes will undoubtedly continue with further experience. When fully operational the system will possess a number of advantages including: elimination of test preparation, editing and marking; facilitated item review opportunities; increased objectivity, feedback, flexibility and decreased anxiety in students.

Summary. Information uptake during a formal lecture was evaluated using a sample of 43 second-year medical students to whom a topic on human developmental anatomy was presented. The sample was divided into two groups: Blue (group B) (21 students) and Red (group R) (22 students). Prior to the lecture, a pre-test of 20 multiple choice questions was administered to each group. The lecture was then delivered over 50 minutes. Both in its preparation and presentation, the lecture conformed to the principles of programmed instruction. After a 10-minute students' question-and-answer session, a post-test was served. For group B, this was group R's pretest while group R, in turn, received group B's pre-test. No question in the pre-test was repeated in the post-test. Intergroup comparisons of pre-test scores and of post-test scores revealed non-significant differences (P>0.05), thus confirming that the pre-and the post-tests were of comparable difficulty. In each group, the mean post-test score was significantly higher than the pre-test score (P

A management training design for non-business administrators is described which incorporates programmed instruction, case studies, experiential exercises and brief lectures in eight two and a half hour sessions. The design accommodates a wide range of participants and demonstrates high content acquisition and retention.

Twelve studies testing the effectiveness of LEADER MATCH, a new approach to leadership training, are reviewed. The training program is presented in a self-paced, programmed instruction manual based on Fiedler's Contingency Model (1964, 1967). Five studies were conducted in civilian organizations and seven were conducted in military settings. The performance evaluations were collected from two to six months after training and in some studies included pre and post measures. The performance evaluations of 423 trained leaders were compared with those of 484 leaders who have been randomly assigned to control groups. All 12 studies yielded statistically significant results supporting LEADER MATCH training.

Summary Three tape/pamphlet independent learning packages have been constructed to serve the same learning objectives as three conventional lectures on the physiology of the nerve axon. The learning efficacy of each package was compared with that of its companion lecture with the co-operation of fifty first-year medical students in a controlled experiment. The packages were at least as effective as the lectures in generating both short- and long-term attainment of their intrinsic learning objectives. The findings are discussed in relation to learning efficacy, student study time, student acceptability, package preparation time and costing.

This article presents a conceptual framework and explores the results and implications of practicum research published from 1975–1982. Forty-two studies were found pertaining directly to practicum supervision and were divided into two categories: maximizing effectiveness of the practicum experience and specific techniques in practicum supervision. Overall, practicum supervision was found to be a worthwhile and beneficial experience and a necessary part of counselor education programs. Focusing on the personality characteristics or value systems of supervisors or supervisees, however, produced mixed results in predicting training effectiveness. There was greater consistency in the examination of specific techniques in supervision with positive outcomes resulting from the utilization of microtraining, dual supervision, peer supervision, modeling, and IPR. The use of programmed instruction was not supported.

Despite the number of studies comparing the programmed instruction (PI) and text teaching methods, the results to date have been inconclusive. In this paper it is hypothesized that the effects of these two modes of learning on performance are dependent on differences in people and in the material to be learned. In an experiment on 48 subjects it was found that both mode of learning and sex affected performance, but the effect of sex differed for the two modes of learning. Women performed better in the PI mode and men performed better in the text mode. Also, performance on definitional material was dependent on the aptitude of the learner and on inferential material was dependent on the prior knowledge of the learner.

In the past, authoring systems have been used to generate computer-assisted learning materials that have often followed the rather restrictive programmed learning format. A number of innovative ways of using recently developed systems to develop CAL packages that include a wider range of learning activities (access to data bases, simulations, interactive video, etc.) are described. Analogous to the concept of a media selection model, a computer delivery mode selection model is presented as an aid to decision making for designers. This increase in flexibility should broaden the applicability of computerassisted learning (CAL) to a wider range of educational objectives and raise the level of the cognitive emphasis in learning packages, as well as facilitate the implementation of visually appealing materials. The paper also implies a standard of acceptability for authoring systems.

An alternative format for the basic media utilization course at the University of Hawaii was developed on an individualized self-paced, self-instructional basis. The course, Media Practician, was offered to undergraduate students in a federally-funded Alternative Teacher Education Program (ATEP). The Visual-Tutorial (V-T) learning system was designed to teach both theory and skills related to effective classroom utilization of audio-visual media materials and equipment to pre-service elementary school teachers during their third and fourth years of training. The underlying learning psychology utilized by this visual-tutorial system is related to the self-pacing, individualized, self-instructional, programmed learning systems found in programmed texts, teaching machines and computer-based learning (Butler 1970).

A programmed instruction approach to race relations training in the United States Army involved the development of the technique (culture assimilator) and its field test. In the development phase 65 black officers, 90 black enlisted men, 65 white officers, and 90 white enlisted men participated; in the field test 84 white junior grade officers and 85 black junior grade officers participated. Results indicated: (a) the sample of problems used in the assimilator represents a set of events far more familiar to black officers than the white officers; (b) blacks obtain higher scores on the assimilator (indicative of greater knowledge of the black perspective on race relations in the army) than whites; (c) significant evidence of learning of acculturative materials on the part of white officers was obtained; and (d) there was significant improvement on an independent test of intercultural understanding.

The authors assessed the efficacy of a self-instructional psychiatric learning program to provide training for paraprofessional psychiatric personnel. The self-regulated learning system, which originally was developed to train medical students, was designed to impart basic psychiatric knowledge and diagnostic skills. Changes along personality dimensions that occurred as a function of participating in the programmed learning project also were examined. Participation in this program was associated with substantial pre-post changes in dogmatism and locus of control for males as well as significant increments in psychiatric knowledge and diagnostic skills for the group as a whole. The benefits derived from this easily administered training procedure suggest its feasible inclusion in paraprofessional inservice training programs.

Instructors in principles courses should consider placing greater emphasis on modern problems and organonic teaching techniques to increase students' proficiency in agricultural economics. These techniques will stimulate student imaginations, modify learning styles toward collaborative and independent learners, and stimulate interest in the subject matter. Unfortunately, recent developments in teaching principles are aphoristic techniques, including programmed learning, television, and computer-aided instruction. These aphoristic techniques stifle students' imaginations, contribute to a dependent learning style, and fail to stimulate interest in the subject matter. The degree of instructors' adoption of modern problems and organonic techniques depend on their teaching abilities, class size, types of students, and how their courses blend into the curriculum.

After reading this report of Dr. Miller and his group, some still may wonder whether programmed instruction always provides sound teaching or sometimes exercise with a fad.