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We investigate the role of technology in the decision of dairy farmers to convert to organic production methods. Using data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Resource Management Survey, we estimate an input distance function using stochastic frontier analysis to measure several characteristics of the production technology, including technical efficiency, returns to scale, and elasticities of substitution. We use a new functional form that allows for a global approximation to the unknown distance function without comprising approximation at the data boundaries. Using a linear random utility model, we then estimate the impact of these characteristics on the probability of converting from conventional to organic milk production between 2005 and 2010. Conventional dairies with lower technical efficiency, higher returns to scale, and those with the ability to easily substitute between key inputs have considerably higher likelihood of converting to organic production. Empirical findings suggest that the removal of sources of diseconomies of scale and subsidization of substitutes for restricted inputs may incentivize organic adoption. Furthermore, this research suggests further consolidation in the conventional industry as the low-end firms exit for the organic industry. This study contributes to the literature by identifying a new set of factors that play a major role in organic conversion.

Sodium caseinate (SC) is not considered suitable for use as an emulsifier in organic processed food in the food industry because of the use of prohibited synthetic chemical substances during its production. Casein mixture preparation (CMP), one of the permissible substances specified in the regulations, was isolated from organic milk using citric acid and dibasic potassium phosphate for organic processed foods. RESULTS To compare CMP and SC, model emulsions stabilized with each substance were prepared at various concentrations and their physicochemical properties were analyzed. The emulsions' stability was determined using Turbiscan under various environmental stresses. The zeta potential of SC and CPM showed a high surface charge (≤ 30 mV) at all protein concentrations. Because the concentration of the protein preparation increased to 0.75% (w/v), the particle size of the CMP emulsion decreased with the surface load increased as much as that of SC. The CMP and SC emulsions were stable at neutral pH and room temperature. However, at acidic pH and high temperature, both emulsions were destabilized by creaming and flocculation and increased the creaming migration rates. CONCLUSION Overall, our data suggest the use of CMP as an emulsifier substitute for SC in organic processed foods. ? 2018 Society of Chemical Industry

Past studies have explained organic buying as a function of sociodemographic or attitudinal consumer's traits and/or as a result of marketing influences. However, in view of mounting evidence of social effects on sustainable consumption, this paper aims to enrich our understanding of the determinants of organic demand by introducing neighbourhood effects in buying models; in particular, using scanner data from Nielsen household panelists of 2012–2013, this study tests the influence on demand of both structural variables (collapsed into a factor labelled “neighbourhood class”) and geographical location of a household, controlling for the influence of household characteristics and other marketing‐related influences (e.g., price). This paper concludes that structural class, rather than household class, positively influences organic milk purchasing. It also shows that relative class can also explain the likelihood of organic buying.

A study of two adjacent dairy farms, one using conventional confined herd management and the other organic management, revealed significant differences in the fatty acid composition of the milk. Compared with conventional milk, organic milk had higher levels of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and α-linolenic acid (the major omega-3 fatty acid in milk), and less stearic and linoleic acid (the major omega-6 fatty acid in milk) during the spring–summer grazing season. When discarding geography and weather as variables, organic milk appears to yield more CLA and α-linolenic acid, which should be beneficial to health.

BACKGROUND Intensification of organic dairy production leads to the question of whether the implementation of intensive feeding incorporating maize silage and concentrates is altering milk quality. Therefore the fatty acid (FA) and antioxidant (AO) profiles of milk on 24 farms divided into four system groups in three replications (n = 71) during the outdoor period were analyzed. In this system comparison, a differentiation of the system groups and the effects of the main system factors ‘intensification level’ (high-input versus low-input) and ‘origin’ (organic versus conventional) were evaluated in a multivariate statistical approach. RESULTS Consistent differentiation of milk from the system groups due to feeding-related impacts was possible in general and on the basis of 15 markers. The prediction of the main system factors was based on four or five markers. The prediction of ‘intensification level’ was based mainly on CLA c9,t11 and C18:1 t11, whereas that of ‘origin’ was based on n-3 PUFA. CONCLUSION It was possible to demonstrate consistent differences in the FA and AO profiles of organic and standard conventional milk samples. Highest concentrations of nutritionally beneficial compounds were found in the low-input organic system. Adapted grass-based feeding strategies including pasture offer the potential to produce a distinguishable organic milk product quality. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

Summary An improved extraction (2.5% HPO3, 5 mm dithiothreitol) and HPLC quantification methodology using a C–18 column at 35 °C and 0.1 m acetic acid (98%) and acetonitrile (2%) mobile phase was developed to quantify total ascorbic acid (AA) in commercial whole/semi-skim/skim raw/pasteurised/UHT milk packaged in opaque bags, transparent plastic, cardboard and Tetra Brik™. AA content ranged from 0.21 to 10 and from 3.4 to 16 mg L−1 in milk from retail outlets and processing plants, respectively, and was higher in organic milk. For same processor/lot samples, pasteurised milk showed higher AA content than UHT milk. This was not true for retail outlets samples. AA content was similar for whole/semi-skim and semi-skim/skim milk, but not for whole/skim comparisons. Among UHT samples, the AA content trend was whole

Literature provides evidence of a highly price-elastic demand for organic food. However, most of the studies were conducted several years ago. In the meantime the organic market has matured. Consequently, results in literature need to be reviewed. This study specifically addresses own-price elasticity estimates for organic and conventional milk. The analysis is based on a household panel dataset of 20,000 German households. A two-step estimation procedure is applied. First, a probit regression examines which household characteristics affect the probability of buying organic milk. Second, a linear approximated almost ideal demand system provides detailed demand elasticity estimates. By using up-to-date data, distinguishing between different consumer groups, incorporating sociodemographic information and relying on a considerably large sample size this study is both an update and a refinement of previous research. In contrast to previous studies, econometric results suggest that demand for organic milk is absolutely price-inelastic in Germany. However, price responsiveness differs substantially between milk types and consumer groups. (EconLit classifications: C33, C34, D12). © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to investigate bioactive whey protein concentrations in cow’s milk collected in late pasture (LP) and early indoor feeding (EIF) season from conventional and organic farms in Poland. RESULTS: Results showed that in the LP somatic cell count (SCC) was higher under organic farming conditions. However, percentages of protein and fat were higher under conventional farming conditions. In EIF, milk from conventional dairy farms had a higher percentage of fat and lactose and a lower concentration of protein and SCC in comparison to milk from organic farms. Organic milk in LP had higher concentrations of beneficial whey proteins than conventional milk, including β-lactoglobulin (β-Lg, 4.12 vs. 2.68 g L −1 ), lactoferrin (Lf, 334.99 vs. 188.02 mg L −1 ), and lysozyme (Lz, 15.68 vs. 12.56 µ gL −1 ). However, conventional milk in EIF had higher concentrations of bovine serum albumin (146.47 vs. 118.65 mg L −1 ), Lf (49 vs. 185.27 mg L −1 ), and Lz (16.63 vs. 13.22 µ gL −1 ). CONCLUSIONS: The results show significant differences in the investigated parameters between organic milk and milk from conventional system during EIF and LP. Moreover, extending the pasture season during EIF in organic farms decreases concentration of bioactive compounds of milk. c � 2012 Society of Chemical Industry

BACKGROUND: Organic milk is seen as more healthy in terms of its fatty acid (FA) profile. In three on-farm crossover trials with 10–12 cows in each group, different forages were compared for their potential to improve the FA composition. Different hay qualities (hay of pasture vs. hay of leys), additional energy sources (fodder beets vs. wheat) and roughage qualities (hay of pasture vs. grass silage) were compared for their effect on the FA composition of the milk. RESULTS: Rumenic acid (CLA cis-9, trans-11) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) were selected as principal markers to evaluate effects. The overall CLA cis-9, trans-11 was low (3.6–6.3 g kg−1 fat), whereas ALA levels were intermediate (6.8–9.4 g kg−1 fat). Differences between the forages were explained by the fat metabolism of the ruminants. CONCLUSION: Organic winter milk is low in several desirable FAs. Diets rich in mature fodder and sugar were a poor choice for an improved FA composition. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry

Phytanic acid is a tetramethyl-branched isoprenoid fatty acid. Its presence in food is linked with chlorophyll, which contains its precursor, i. e. the alcohol side-chain phytol. The bioconversion of phytol into phytanic acid is effective particularly in the rumen and in the marine environment. Thus, milk, other dairy products and meat from ruminants as well as fish contain the highest concentrations of phytanic acid in the range of ˜100–500 mg/100 g lipids. Phytanic acid has been proposed as a marker for organic milk because its abundance can be linked to the amount of chlorophyll present in the cows' diet. Phytanic acid is also involved in a very rare but dramatic disease, and persons suffering from the so-called Refsum syndrome have to restrict themselves to a diet with low levels of phytanic acid.

The authors use weekly milk scanner data from six stores of a national supermarket chain to investigate empirically the purchasing patterns of suburban and inner-city residents for conventional and organic milk. They disaggregate conventional milk products into four categories based on fat content (whole, 2%, 1%, and skim); organic milk is disaggregated into these same categories, but for empirical estimation, some categories are combined. Their descriptive statistics show that suburban consumers, relative to inner-city consumers, purchase more organic and lower-fat conventional milk. These same consumers pay higher prices for conventional and organic milk, save for conventional 1% and skim milk. Our econometric results indicate that suburban consumers are price insensitive toward the purchase of all conventional and organic classes; inner-city consumers are price-sensitive toward conventional whole and 2% milk—products that constitute 89% of their milk expenditure; these same consumers are price insensitive toward all other classes of conventional and organic milk. [JEL codes: Q110, Q130, Q180]. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

BACKGROUND: Organic milk production aims at efficient use of home-grown feeds, especially forages, to minimise the quantity of purchased feeds. In conventional agriculture, Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) is known for its high energy content and palatability, and the aim of the present study was to examine its suitability as feed for organic dairy cows. Therefore a feeding trial was conducted comparing a diet including 50% (of silage dry matter (DM)) of Italian ryegrass silage with a control diet based on grass/clover silage (a mixture of the second cut from permanent grassland and the second cut from a perennial clovergrass ley) alone. RESULTS: Inclusion of Italian ryegrass silage in the diet increased forage intake significantly (14.5 vs 13.4 kg DM in the control group) and concentrate intake did not differ, but milk yield was slightly lower (20.3 vs 21.0 kg) owing to the low energy and protein concentration of Italian ryegrass silage. CONCLUSION: Italian ryegrass was indeed found to be highly palatable, confirming in principle its suitability as feed for organic dairy cows. However, higher energy and protein concentrations in this forage would be necessary to translate the high intakes of Italian ryegrass silage into improved milk production as well. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry

Phytanic acid (3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadecanoic acid) is a branched-chain fatty acid, produced by bacteria by means of oxidation and biohydrogenation of the chlorophyll side chain phytol (3,7R,11R,15-tetramethylhexadec-2-en-1-ol). The later reaction generates to a new stereogenic center on C-3 which can be both 3R- or 3S-configured. Thus, two diastereomers (3S,7R,11R,15- and 3R,7R,11R,15-phytanic acid) are naturally produced. In this study we examined the diastereomer composition of phytanic acid in terrestrial and marine food samples. Phytanic acid was transferred into its methyl ester which was analyzed by GC/MS in the selected ion monitoring mode. The first eluted diastereomer in the samples was tentatively identified as 3S,7R,11R,15-phytanic acid. The marine samples were clearly dominated by 3S,7R,11R,15-phytanic acid whose abundance was higher in marine mammals than in fish. Milk from one organic cow collected over a period of 30 days showed lower proportions of 3S,7R,11R,15-phytanic acid than milk from one cow raised with conventional feed. The difference between organic and conventional dairy products (cheese and butter) was not as pronounced as in milk. Milk samples from other mammals (goat, sheep, mare, camel, moose, and human) also showed an excess of 3S,7R,11R,15-phytanic acid except for camel and moose milk.

Auction experiments were used to examine demand relationships and willingness to pay (WTP) for organic, rBST-free, no antibiotics used, and conventional milk. Elasticities showed strong substitute and complement relationships between organic, rBST-free, and no antibiotics varieties. The sum of the latter two’s premiums were not significantly different than the organic premium, suggesting diminishing marginal utility for added attributes. Results from a two-stage heteroskedastic tobit model demonstrated that WTP premiums for the varieties differ significantly by demographics and beliefs regarding the conventional version. These suggest market segments for rBST-free and no antibiotics versions could succeed alongside organic, benefiting consumers and producers. Copyright 2007, Oxford University Press.

Subjective perceptions about a product affect consumer choice. Accordingly, acquiring the underlying demand characteristics that consumers find desirable is vital for firms planning future marketing strategies. However, the extent to which product-specific perceptions affect consumer choice is poorly understood. New agricultural standards for organic livestock were introduced in Japan in November 2005 and are expected to influence the market significantly. Choice modeling (CM) is used to explore how consumers evaluate the latent demands and conventional attributes (or tangible values) of organic milk. The results suggest that latent demands, along with socioeconomic characteristics and conventional attributes, provide strong incentives for consumers to move from the purchase of conventional milk to organic milk. The analysis indicates that latent demands reflecting the safeness of organic milk, the better taste of organic milk, the image of environmental friendliness in the production process, and the image of the health and comfort of the cows are important factors that influence consumers' purchasing decisions. However, each specific factor has a corresponding conventional tangible attribute that needs to be targeted in marketing strategy.

More intensive use of pasture and the transition to organic production are being used to reduce production costs and increase profitability of some small dairy farms in Pennsylvania. Farm simulation, supported by case study farm data, was used to compare the economic benefits and environmental impacts of two grazing-based production systems using either organic or conventional practices. Systems using all-grass production with managed rotational grazing and a spring calving herd maintained outdoors throughout the year had lower erosion and phosphorus losses, lower production costs, and up to $200/acre ($1.58 to 3.63/cwt of milk produced) greater net return compared to systems using crop production, supplemental grazing, random calving, and winter confinement. With either production approach, substantial economic benefit was found using organic practices, but this benefit was highly dependant upon the price difference between organic and conventional milk. Environmental concerns for organic production were (i) long-term accumulation of soil nutrients due to the use of imported poultry manure for crop fertilization, and (ii) greater soil erosion and runoff loss of phosphorus due to increased tillage for weed control in annual crops. The economic net benefit may encourage more grass-based dairy producers to transition to organic certification, so more attention must be given to identifing strategies that better utilize farm nutrients and reduce losses to the environment.

German milk brands have come under significant price pressure due to the introduction of retail labels at the lower price end and of organic milk as a premium product. This analysis provides elasticity estimates by milk types and analyzes sociodemographic determinants of demand. A censored system of German household demand for organic and conventional milk, further separated into retail-label and brand milk, is estimated using a two-step procedure on data from the 2000–2003 German GfK ConsumerScan Houshold Survey. Own-price elasticities of conventional milk are around unity, but the demand for organic milk is very price-elastic. Results suggest that the price of organic milk should be considered as an important marketing instrument. [JEL-Code: D12, Q11]. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Summary objective evaluation of this Symposium results in the following three conclusi The organic speakers all laboured the view that this new sector is very ‘open’ in terms of helping each other and readily providing information. However, their actual contributions highlighted that they were less open with ‘outsiders’ in mainstream dairying. In turn, the organic presentations were characterized by (i) paucity of hard facts and lack of technical content, (ii) too much emphasis on the philosophy/ethos of organic production and (iii) associated feelings of superiority over mainstream or conventional agriculture. These considerations were compounded by two speakers not adequately addressing their specific topics and associated briefs. A niggling concern about the professionalism and commercialism of organic producers and processors, especially when they face the full blast of competition from the major dairy processors in due course. However, an overall assessment of this Symposium suggests that it still achieved the main objective set by the Society of providing an independent forum for the domestic organic sector to present its wares to the mainstream UK dairy industry.

Using the 2004 AC Nielsen panel consisting of over 38,000 households, the authors ascertain the influence of selected demographic variables associated with the purchase of organic fluid milk through the estimation of a probit model. From the use of the Heckman two-step procedure, they also calculate own-price, cross-price, and income elasticities by estimating demand relationships for both organic and conventional milk. They find that demographic factors play a crucial role in the household choice of purchasing organic milk. Furthermore, households are more sensitive to own-price changes in the case of organic milk versus conventional milk. Evidence from estimated cross-price elasticities indicates that organic and conventional milk are substitutes. However, quantities purchased of organic milk are more sensitive to changes in prices of conventional milk than vice versa. Consequently, an asymmetric pattern exists with regard to the substitution patterns of the respective milk types. Moreover, evidence indicates that organic milk is responsive to income changes, but conventional milk is not responsive to income changes. Finally, a 1% increase in the price of organic milk reduces total milk sales by 0.20%, but a 1% increase in the price of conventional milk raises total milk sales by 0.31%. lEconLit citations: C25, D12r. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.