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There is an ongoing debate about whether, and to what extent, males differ from females in their language skills. In the case of handwriting, a composite language skill involving language and motor processes, behavioral observations consistently show robust sex differences but the mechanisms underlying the effect are unclear. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a copying task, the present study examined the neural basis of sex differences in handwriting in 53 healthy adults (ages 19–28, 27 males). Compared to females, males showed increased activation in the left posterior middle frontal gyrus (Exner's area), a region thought to support the conversion between orthographic and graphomotor codes. Functional connectivity between Exner's area and the right cerebellum was greater in males than in females. Furthermore, sex differences in brain activity related to handwriting were independent of language material. This study identifies a novel neural signature of sex differences in a hallmark of human behavior, and highlights the importance of considering sex as a factor in scientific research and clinical applications involving handwriting.

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This study addressed the role of subcortical brain structures in temporal adaptation and anticipation during sen-sorimotor synchronization. The performance of patients with cerebellar or basal ganglia lesions was comparedwith that of healthy control participants on tasks requiring the synchronization of drum strokes with adaptive andtempo-changing auditory pacing sequences. The precision of sensorimotor synchronization was generally lowerin patients relative to controls (i.e., variability of asynchronies was higher in patients), although synchronizationaccuracy (mean asynchrony) was commensurate. A computational model of adaptation and anticipation (ADAM)was used to examine potential sources of individual differences in precision by estimating participants’ use of errorcorrection, temporal prediction, and the amount of variability associated with central timekeeping and peripheralmotorprocesses.ParameterestimatesbasedonADAMindicatethatimpairedprecisionwasattributabletoincreasedvariability of timekeeper and motor processes as well as to reduced temporal prediction in both patient groups.Adaptive processes related to continuously applied error correction were, by contrast, intact in patients. Thesefindings highlight the importance of investigating how subcortical structures, including the cerebellum and basalganglia,interactwithabroadernetworkofcorticalregionstosupporttemporaladaptationandanticipationduringsensorimotorsynchronization.Keywords: sensorimotor synchronization; timing; patients; computational modeling; prediction; error correction

The neural processes underlying an unplanned shift in movement control across limb systems were studied by recording event-related potentials (ERPs) as participants made a left or right hand movement followed by a left or right foot movement or vice versa. ERPs associated with both first and second movements replicated a recent finding that Cz is more positive before hand than foot responses. Lateralized readiness potentials (LRPs) associated with the first movement replicated patterns observed previously with single movements, but LRPs leading up to the second movement depended strongly on the side of the first movement, possibly because of residual lateralization from it. Overall, the results suggest that the motor processes associated with limb system selection can be fully reset prior to a switch between hand and foot movements, but the processes associated with side selection may not be.

Event-related potentials were used to examine the preparation of hand and foot responses in tasks using both limb systems. As in tasks using only one system, opposite lateralized readiness potentials were observed for hand and foot responses (Experiment 1). Furthermore, movement-related activity at Cz was more positive prior to hand than foot responses, revealing that Cz activity can be used to index selective movement preparation by one limb system. In Experiment 2, two responses were cued prior to stimulus onset. Cue-related activity at Cz was more positive with hand than foot cuing, reinforcing the conclusion that Cz activity is sensitive to selective preparation for one of these limb systems. Overall, the results show that it is possible to carry out motor preparation of two responses within the same limb system and that differential Cz activity is a useful index of this preparation in tasks with hand versus foot movements.

Using a response precuing task, we investigated whether motor preparation of temporal response features follows a fixed order as implied by the generalized motor program (GMP) view. Relative timing and overall duration of sequential key presses were factorially manipulated. Precues either provided no information, provided partial information about relative or overall duration, or fully specified the response. Reaction time decreased with the amount of advance information, reflecting the reduction of response alternatives by the precue and influences on preparatory motor processes. The contingent negative variation (CNV) over the left but not the medial and right motor regions increased with the amount of advance information provided. The foreperiod lateralized readiness potential indicated hand-specific activation for the full precue condition only. These findings disagree with the assumption that a GMP's invariant and variable response features are prepared in fixed order.

Many lizards and all snakes flick their tongues. It is known that this unique behavioral pattern serves to collect airborne and substrate chemicals which give the animal information via Jacobson's Organ about the location of food, conspecifics, and possibly other environmental factors. However, a comparative topographic analysis of tongue movements in squamate reptiles is lacking, and it might shed light on the evolution of this behavior. In this study, a survey was made of the lizards and snakes which tongue-flick. Observations and films were made of 25 lizard species representing 10 families and 30 snake species representing 5 families. The information from observations and film analyses of representative species was used to hypothesize the steps of the evolution of tongue-flicking from the simple downward extensions of primitive lizards to the complex multiple oscillations of snakes.

Warning signals can shorten reaction time (RT) via either a top-down mechanism, temporal attention, or a bottom-up one, phasic arousal. The goal of this review article is to identify the locus at which these processes influence RT. Electrophysiological and behavioral evidence indicate that the chronometric locus for both modulatory effects lies mainly within a narrow window at the center of the stimulus-response interval. This interval presumably encompasses late perceptual, response selection, and early motor processes. Phasic arousal is theorized to reduce the threshold for response selection within a circuit involving the supramarginal gyrus. A blind-sight study indicates that conscious, cortical level processing is necessary for temporal attention, at least when the warning signal is visual.

SUMMARY A longitudinal study of 14 carefully selected low-risk pre-term infants was carried out by observations over a two-hour observation period at weekly intervals. Observation was concentrated on their body postures, various types of motility, respiratory patterns and various aspects of behavioural states. Notes were made per minute of observation; only respiration (thermistor), EGG and actogram were recorded polygraphically. The gestational age of the infants ranged from 28 to 36 weeks and they were observed until they reached about term age. The age-specific preference postures of the limbs described in the literature could not be registered. There was a clear-cut dominant head position to the right side from 28 weeks onwards. Body postures lasted only briefly, but increased in duration with age. Related to this was the decline in gross motor activity, which less frequently led to a displacement of limb and head positions after about 36 weeks gestational age. There was no correlation with postnatal age. The amount of motility and of crying showed marked and consistent individual differences. Regular and irregular respiration can be divided into both continuous and periodic: there was a gradual increase in the percentage of regular respiration from 28 weeks to term age. The average duration of episodes of regular breathing reached the length found in full-term infants at about 32 weeks. Respiratory pauses of 10 seconds or more without simultaneous gross movements were rare in these low-risk pre-term infants. Cycles of regular/irregular breathing, episodes of rapid/non-rapid eye-movements, and of motility/quiescence are seemingly independent of each other until about 36 weeks. Before that age, it is hazardous to apply the usual state concept, originally designed for full-term infants, to pre-term babies. RESUME Postures, motricite et respiration chez les nourrissons prematures a faible risque. Une etude longitudinale de 14 nourrissons prematurds, specialement choisis a faible risque, a ete entreprise par des observations de deux heures a intervalles d'une semaine. L'observation portait sur la posture corporelle, les types varies d'activite motrice, les schemas respiratoires et les aspects varies d'etats comportementaux. Des notes etaient prises toutes les minutes d'observation, seule la respiration (thermistor) 1'ECG et l'actogramme etaient enregistres polygraphiquement. L'âge de gestation des nourrissons allait de 28 a 36 semaines et ils furent observes jusqua atteindre l'âge du terme. Les postures preferentielles des membres, specifiques d'un âge et decrites dans la litterature n'ont pas pu etre observees. II apparut une position tres nette dominante de la tete vers le cote droit depuis le debut des 28 semaines. Les postures corporelles durerent peu mais avec augmentation de duree en fonction de lâge; en relation avec cela, il fut observe une diminution de l'activite motrice globale qui, moins frequemment, conduisit a un deplacement de la position des membres et de la tete apres environ 36 semaines d'âge gestionnel. II ne fut pas observd de correlation avec lâge post-natal. La quantite de motricite et de pleurs presente des differences individuelles marquees et permanentes. La respiration reguliere et irreguliere a pu etre divisee en episodes continus et periodiques. II fut observe un accroissement graduel du pourcentage de respiration reguliecre depuis 28 semaines jusqu’a lâge du terme, et la duree moyenne des episodes de respiration reguliere atteignit la duree observee chez les nourrissons nes a terme a environ 32 semaines. Les pauses respiratoires de plus de dix secondes sans mouvements simultanes importants ont ete rares chez ces prematures a faible risque. Des cycles de respiration reguliere/irreguliere, d'episodes oculaires rapides/non rapides et de mobilite/repos ont paru independants les uns des autres jusqua environ 36 semaines d'âge de gestation. II parait hasardeux d'utiliser les concepts habituels d'etats d'activite, etablis initialement pour les nourrissons nes a terme, avant 36 semaines d'âge de gestation. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Korperhaltungen, Bewegungen und Atmung bei gesunden Fruhgeborenen An 14 sorgfaltig ausgewahlten, gesunden fruhgeborenen Kindern wurden im Rahmen einer Langzeitstudie wochentlich zweistundige Beobachtungen durchgefuhrt. Es wurden besonders Korperhaltungen, verschiedene Bewegungsmuster, Atemtypen und Verhal-tensmuster beobachtet. In jeder Beobachtungsminute wurden Aufzeichnungen gemacht; nur die Atmung (Thermistor) das EKG und das Aktogramm wurden polygraphisch aufgezeichnet. Das Gestationsalter der Kinder betrug zwischen 28 und 36 wochen und die Beobachtungen wurden bis zu 40 Wochen durchgefuhrt. Die altersspezifischen Vorzugshaltungen der Extremitaten, die in der Literatur beschrieben werden, konnten nicht beobachtet werden. Von der 28 sten Woche an wurde der Kopf vorzugsweise nach rechts gedreht gehalten. Die Korperhaltungen wechselten rasch, jedoch anderte sich dies mit zunehmendem Alter: im Zusammenhang damit fand sich ein Nachlassen der allgemeinen motorischen Aktivitat, dadurch wurde die Haltung von Gliedmassen und Kopf nach der 36 sten Gestationswoche weniger haufig geandert. Diese Befunde standen in keiner Korrelation zum postnatalen Alter. Der Grad der Mobilitat und die Haufigkeit des Schreiens zeigten deutliche gleichbleibende individuelle Unterschiede. Regulare sowie irregulare Atmung konnten in kontinuierliche und periodische Episod-en eingeteilt werden. Von der 28 sten Woche an nahm der Anteil der regularen Atmung gleichmassig zu und die durchschnittliche Dauer der regularen Atemphasen erreichte mit etwa 32 Wochen die Lange wie sie bei reifen Neugeborenen gefunden wurde. Atempausen von mehr als 10 Sekunden Dauer ohne gleichzeitige Korperbewegungen waren bei diesen Fruhgeborenen selten. Die Wechsel von regularer/irregularer Atmung, von schnellen/langsamen Augen-bewegungen und von Unruhe/Ruhe sind offensichtlich unabhangig voneinander bis zur 36 sten Gestationswoche. Es ist gefahrlich die gewohnliche Stadieneinteilung, die ursprunglich fur reife Neugeborene entworfen wurde, auf Kinder anzuwenden, deren Gestations-alter weniger als 36 Wochen betragt. RESUMEN Posturas, motilidad y respiracion en lactantes preterminos de bajo riesgo Se realizo un estudio longitudinal en 14 lactantes a pretermino cuidadosamente seleccionados, de bajo riesgo a base de observaciones horarias a intervalos de una semana. La observacion se concentro en la postura de sus cuerpos, diversos tipos de motilidad, esquemas respiratorios y varios aspectos de estados de comportamiento. Las anotaciones se realizaron por cada minuto de observacion: solo respiracion (thermistor), electrocar-diograma y actograma registrados poligraficamente. La edad estacional de los lactantes oscilaba entre 28 y 36 semanas y fueron observadas hasta que alcanzaron mas o menos la edad de termino. No pudo registrarse las posturas de preferencia de las extremidades a edades especificas descritas en la literatura. Se observo una postura bien definida y dominante de la cabeza hacia el lado derecho a partir de las 28 semanas. Las posturas del cuerpo duraban solo brevemente pero aumentaban duracion con la edad: en relacion con esto estaba la disminucion de la actividad motora grosera, con menor frecuencia, conduciendo a un desplazamiento de la extremidad y de la posicion de la cabeza despues de alrededor de las 36 semanas de edad gestacional. No habia correlacion con la edad postnatal. La cantidad de movilidad y de Uanto mostro unas diferencias individuales marcadas y consistentes. La respiracion regular e irregular pudo ser dividida entre periodos respectivamente continuo y periodico. Hubo un aumento gradual en el porcentaje de la respiracion regular a partir de las 28 semanas hasta la edad de termino y la duracion promedia de los episodios de respiracion regular alcanzo la longitud encontrada en lactantes a termino hacia las 32 semanas. Las pautas respiratorias de mas de 10 segundos sin movimientos groseros simultaneos fueron raras en estos lactantes pretermino de bajo riesgo. Los ciclos de respiracion regular/irregular, de episodios de movimiento regular rapido/no rapido y de movilidad/tranquilidad parecen ser independientes uno de otro hasta las seis semanas de edad gestacional. Es aventurado aplicar el usual concepto de estado designado habitualmente para lactantes a termino, antes de las 36 semanas de edad gestacional.

The comparator-model, originally developed to explain motor action, has recently been invoked to explain several aspects of the self. However, in the first place it may not be used to explain a basic self-world distinction because it presupposes one. Our alternative account is based on specific systematic covariation between action and perception. Secondly, the comparator model cannot explain the feeling of ownership of thoughts. We argue—contra Frith and Campbell—that thoughts are not motor processes and therefore cannot be described by the comparator-model. Rather, thoughts can be the triggering cause (intention) for actions. An alternative framework for the explanation of thought insertion in schizophrenics is presented.

Problematique. Ce projet avait pour objectif d’etudier les fondements sociaux et personnels des images de soi des enfants en rapport avec les activites physiques selon le modele de la motivation de l’apprentissage en spirale. Ce modele rapproche l’image de soi des enfants, leurs sentiments, leurs choix, leurs strategies de resolution de problemes et leurs performances, tout ce qui peut stimuler et contraindre les motivations des enfants a participer a des activites physiques dans les annees a venir. Methode. La premiere etude a porte sur de jeunes enfants (N= 40. Age: m = 6,3; σ= 1,1), mais aussi sur des moins jeunes (N= 36. Age : m = 10,2; σ= 1,2). La seconde concernait des enfants de 4 a 11 ans (N= 56. Age : m = 8; σ= 2,1). Resultats. Dans la premiere etude, les bases personnelles et sociales des images de soi variaient selon l’âge et les images des soi n’etaient pas necessairement en rapport avec les performances observees. Dans la deuxieme etude, les images de soi et les sentiments relatifs aux activites incitaient a une participation ulterieure fournissant aux enfants des occasions de developper leurs capacites et leur strategies cognitives. Conclusion. Les resultats confirment les fondements hypothetiques personnels et sociaux des images de soi, ce qui est essentiel dans le modele de l’apprentissage en spirale des motivations des enfants. Il en ressort qu’il existe des pistes communes et diversifiees qui conduisent les enfants a s’adonner a des activites physiques, ce qui a des retombees importantes sur les programmes cliniques et educatifs concernant la sante et le bien-etre des enfants. This project examined the personal and social bases of children's self concepts about movement within the Motivational Spiral Model. The model relates children's self concepts, feelings, choices, task strategies, and performance that feed forward to support and constrain children's motivations to participate in physical movement in subsequent years. Study 1 was with younger (N= 40, age 6.3, SD 1.1 years) and older children (N= 36, age 10.2, SD 1.2 years). Study 2 was with 4- to 11-year-old children (N= 56, age 8.0, SD 2.1). In Study 1, personal and social bases of self concepts varied for younger and older children, and their self concepts were not necessarily associated with actual performance. In Study 2, children's self concepts and feelings about movement feed forward to subsequent participation providing children with opportunities to develop their task strategies and skills. Results support the proposed personal and social bases to self concepts that are central to the Motivational Spiral Model. The findings suggest common and diverse pathways to children's participation in physical activities, that have important applications in educational and clinical programmes for children's health and well-being.

Standard theory of planned behavior (TPB) questions to elicit salient behavioral beliefs may elicit instrumental consequences of behavior, and overlook affective consequences. Two hundred thirteen English adults (35 to 75 years of age) completed a questionnaire that contained closed measures of TPB constructs, and open-ended questions that asked not only about advantages and disadvantages, but also what respondents would like or enjoy and dislike or hate about being more physically active. Beliefs elicited by affective questions were associated more strongly with a closed affective attitude scale. Beliefs elicited by instrumental questions were associated more strongly with a closed instrumental attitude scale. Closed measures of the standard TPB variables explained 48% of the variance in intention to increase physical activity, while affective attitude explained an additional 11% of the variance. Applications of the TPB should consider affective and not just instrumental determinants of behavior.

A gender difference in motor activity level (AL) is well established for children, but questions about the existence and nature of an infant sex difference remain. To assess these questions, we applied meta-analytic procedures to summarize 46 infancy studies comprising 78 male–female motor activity comparisons. Our results showed that, as with children, male infants were more active than females. Objective measures of infant AL estimated the size of this difference to be 0.2 standard deviations, though subjective parent-report measures estimated the difference to be smaller. We argue that this early sex difference in activity level is biologically based. However, socialization processes, such as gender-differentiated expectations and experiences, in conjunction with further sex-differentiated biological developments, amplify this early difference to produce the larger gender differences in activity found during childhood. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In 3 studies, the idea was tested that an increase in a police officer's movements in an interview will lead to an increase in movements made by the suspect. This increase in movements may then be interpreted by the police officer as suspicious behavior. In Study 1, interviewees were interviewed by 1 male police officer who either made some movements or no movements at all. The movements made by the suspects were investigated. In Studies 2 and 3, police officers were asked to judge the credibility of interviewees who were interviewed by a lively or a nonlively interviewer. The results supported the process described.

Recordings of electrical brain activity have provided a rich field of data. These data are harvested at at least two scales of inquiry: scalp recordings from humans have accessed cognitive aspects of the mind/brain relationship, and microelectrode recordings in animals have delineated circuits involved in sensory and motor processes. As yet, there are few studies that have attempted to reconcile the findings obtained at these different scales. It is such reconciliation that we are attempting in experiments performed in our Center for Brain Research and Informational Sciences. A progress report follows. L'enregistrement de l'activite du cerveau a fourni des donnees tres riches qui ont alimente au moins deux niveaux de recherche. Les enregistrements de surface chez l'humain ont permis d'etudier les aspects cognitifs de la relation esprit/cerveau tandis que les enregistrements par microelectrodes chez les animaux ont delimite les circuits sous-jacents aux processus sensoriels et moteurs. Jusqu'a maintenant, ...

The motor processes involved in generating simultaneous hand and foot movements were studied by recording event-related potentials (ERPs) during reaction time tasks in which participants made hand and foot movements either alone or in combination with one another. In particular, we assessed whether the motor potentials generated during combined movements were simply superpositions of the potentials generated during the individual movements in isolation. ERPs generated during single-limb movements replicated previously observed motor potentials, and those generated during both the execution (Experiment 1) and preparation (Experiment 2) of combined movements showed some deviations from the predictions of the superposition hypothesis, suggesting the presence of neural interactions between the hand and foot movement systems during preparation and execution of these actions.

The effects of reading emotionally loaded statements on behavioral tasks and physiological measures were investigated. Statements were constructed to arouse elation, depression, or neutrality. Ss were both pre- and posttested on Writing Speed, Reaction Time, Decision Time, and Spontaneous Verbalizations. Base rates were obtained for heart rate and galvanic skin response. Elation Ss significantly outperformed both Neutral and Depression Ss on the Reaction Time task. Scores for Neutral Ss fell between those of Elation and Depression Ss on three of the four behavioral measures. No significant differneces were found on the physiological measures.