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In species that live in stable groups, successful management of time budget (i.e., the proportion of time involved in different behaviours) and social relationships has been proposed to be a key variable affecting individual fitness. Such management is limited by time constraints, which are group size and season dependancy. However, the link between time budget constraints and grooming patterns as a means to service social relationships has never been studied experimentally. Here, we reduced the time constraints of three wild vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops pygerythrus) groups by offering them high quality food for 60 min in the morning. We conducted 10 trials in summer and 10 trials in winter. We found that vervet monkeys indeed reduced the proportion of time spent foraging during the rest of those days compared to control days and increased the proportion of grooming time spread over more bouts. Individuals that did not get access to the food still participated as much in grooming as those that did eat. In accordance with our expectations, social network analysis revealed a larger grooming network on supplementation days: vervet monkeys used their extra time to socialize with more different group members. Furthermore, following our predictions, the effect of provisioning was usually stronger during the winter season (when food was scarce and days shorter) than during the summer, and the number of conflicts decreased during supplementation days. Finally, despite the fact that adults and juveniles of all three groups increased their proportion of time spent grooming during supplementation days, few group and age differences emerged in the way vervet monkeys manage their time budget. Interestingly, some of these differences seem to be independent of group size. In conclusion, vervet monkeys seize the opportunity to increase the proportion of time spent in social behaviours if time budget constraints are reduced.

Top-predators, including birds of prey, play an important role in ecosystems and are good bioindicators (Sergio et al. 2005). Links between the presence of predators and the overall biodiversity of a particular habitat mainly focus on trophic relationships (Roth and Weber 2008, Sergio et al. 2008b, Burgas et al. 2014). However, top-predators not only have food requirements, but also need to build large, safe nests (Danko 2007). The building and occupancy of such nests by birds of prey are of the greatest importance for several reasons. The nests are often used for many years, due to the huge costs in time and energy of their construction, that, at least theoretically, offer possibilities of their use by many other animals for feeding, roosting and as breeding sites (Konrad and Gilmer 1982, Jimenez-Franco et al. 2014).

The mechanism of senescence is an important subject of current research, but our knowledge of the factors influencing the rate of ageing in naturally occurring populations remains rudimentary. Evolutionary theories of senescence predict that investment in reproduction in early life should come at the cost of reduced somatic maintenance and thus result in earlier or more rapid senescence. We use data on the complete reproductive histories of 431 Common Blackbirds (222 males and 209 females) collected during a 19-year study of the ecology of an urban population of this species to test the main hypotheses addressing the issue of senescence. On average, the birds in this population survived for 3.9 (± 1.9 sd) years. Reproductive success in females peaked at the age of four, but in males it remained stable until the fifth year of life. We observed declines in reproductive success, indicative of senescence, after the peak years in both sexes. The mechanism of age-related changes in the reproduction of females confirms the individual improvement and selective disappearance hypotheses. In the case of males, the increase in reproductive performance comes as a consequence of the disappearance of poor reproducers. The parental investment associated with early life fecundity (the first two breeding seasons in males and females) impairs the breeding success of females later on. Contrary to expectations, there was no negative impact of high early life fecundity on either mortality or lifespan. Individuals of both sexes with a high early life fecundity had a higher lifetime reproductive success than those in which early life fecundity was low. Hence, the most profitable strategy is to maximize reproductive effort in the early stages of life. This yields the highest lifetime reproductive success, despite the increased impact of senescence, especially in females. These results are consistent with the disposable soma hypothesis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Summary Cylindrocarpon-like fungi are globally distributed plant pathogens and have a wide range of host species. However, very little is known about the species that live in the topsoil of forests and their potential role in reducing the natural regeneration of tree species, particularly of forest trees that produce abundant fruit only once every few years. To enhance our understanding of the species that inhabit the topsoil, we studied the diversity and pathogenicity of Cylindrocarpon-like fungi inhabiting the litter in old-growth mixed-beech forests in the Carpathians (Poland) and in the Alps (Austria), and in a managed beech stand in the Krakowsko-Czestochowska Highland (Poland). The fungi inhabiting the beech litter were investigated using beechnuts and pine seedlings as bait. Isolates were identified based on morphology and DNA sequencing. The pathogenicity of the most common species was investigated by inoculating beech germinants. A wide range of Cylindrocarpon-like fungi were associated with the beech litter: 718 cultures representing 12 species were isolated. Five taxa were identified down to species level: namely Ilyonectria crassa, I. pseudodestructans, I. rufa, Neonectria candida and N. obtusispora, and seven species were identified to genus level (Neonectria or Ilyonectria species). Ilyonectria destructans, which is considered to be the sexual morph of ‘Cylindrocarpon destructans’, was not found. There were qualitative and quantitative differences between the different forest sites in terms of Neonectria and Ilyonectria species composition in beech litter. The isolation frequency and species richness of Cylindrocarpon-like fungi were greatest in beech litter taken from old-growth mixed-beech forests. Neonectria and Ilyonectria species were capable of killing beech germinants, suggesting that they may play a negative role in natural beech regeneration.

Many studies of socially monogamous birds discuss the adaptive role of between‐season partner change, but only a handful of them refer to the benefits of pair fidelity in terms of increased survival. Moreover, there are no studies describing the benefits of within‐season mate retention. Our data relating to an urban population of European blackbirds Turdus merula enabled us to test the dependence of survival on pair faithfulness. Because blackbirds divorce within and between seasons, we were able to test the influence of pair faithfulness on their within‐ and between‐season survival and mate fidelity. For this purpose, we used a multievent capture–mark–recapture (MECMR) statistical model, which is based on recapture rates and different pair states (faithful to mate, paired with new partner, or dead). Our study indicated that between‐ and within‐season survival depends on pair states: pair‐bond duration increases survival to the next capture occasion in both sexes. We found that the pair‐bond duration to the current partner increased the chances of being with the same partner during the next breeding occasion, although we failed to find any within‐season pair‐bond influence for females. Our results showed sex differences in mating at the end of the season: females had a much smaller chance of breeding with the current new partner in the next year. This study has demonstrated that within‐ and between‐season survival is dependent on mate retention, and we discuss this in the context of how searching for a new partner could affect the birds’ survival.

To obtain T2* values in histologically evaluated healthy ovine intervertebral discs of the cervical and lumbar spine. Intervertebral discs of nine sheep and nine lambs underwent histological assessment with the modified Boos score for grading of disc degeneration. Discs with a score

Scholars from a wide range of human social and behavioral sciences have become interested in the romantic–sexual kiss. This research, and its public dissemination, often includes statements about the ubiquity of kissing, particularly romantic–sexual kissing, across cultures. Yet, to date there is no evidence to support or reject this claim. Employing standard cross-cultural methods, this research report is the first attempt to use a large sample set (eHRAF World Cultures, SCCS, and a selective ethnographer survey) to document the presence or absence of the romantic–sexual kiss (n = 168 cultures). We defined romantic–sexual kissing as lip-to-lip contact that may or may not be prolonged. Despite frequent depictions of kissing in a wide range of material culture, we found no evidence that the romantic–sexual kiss is a human universal or even a near universal. The romantic–sexual kiss was present in a minority of cultures sampled (46%). Moreover, there is a strong correlation between the frequency of the romantic–sexual kiss and a society's relative social complexity: the more socially complex the culture, the higher frequency of romantic–sexual kissing. [kiss, kissing, romantic, sexual, intimate]

Roosting site selection by geese is a key factor for survival during migration and wintering. Birds should select sites that minimize thermoregulation demands and predation risk, and maximize foraging efficiency. We used data on the spatial location of geese roosting sites in Poland to compare landscape features and the conservation status of roosting and non-roosting sites at different scales ranging from 5 to 50 km. Logistic regression revealed that the sites selected by geese had larger waterbody size than non-selected sites, and surrounded by a smaller coverage of woodland at the scale of 50 km. They also were more often Natura 2000 sites. The most important factors positively affecting the abundance of geese were the size of waterbody and low coverage of artificial area (mostly urban) within a 50 km radius. Several further factors also influenced the roosting site selection. Regardless to the scale a large coverage of farmland (mostly rapeseed) positively affected roosting geese whereas forest coverage had a negative effect. Spatial hierarchical clustering analysis showed that the roosting sites were densely located in regions characterized by the most intensive agriculture. Farming intensity therefore seems to increase the abundance of geese, and consequently, to increase a possible conflict between goose conservation and food production. To alleviate the conflicts we delineated areas that may be most affected and where the conservation measures should be implemented first. As geese respond to environmental factors at different spatial scales this scale-dependency should be included in the conservation and management of goose populations.

6H–SiC single crystals and two types of SiC fibers, Hi-Nicalon type S and Tyranno SA3, have been irradiated with 4-MeV Au3+ up to 2 × 1015 cm−2 (4 dpa) at room temperature, 100°C and 200°C. These fibers are composed of highly faulted 3C–SiC grains and free intergranular C. Stacking fault linear density and grain size estimations yield, respectively, 0.29 nm−1 and 26–36 nm for the Hi-Nicalon type S fibers and 0.18 nm−1 and 141–210 nm for the Tyranno SA3 fibers. Both transmission electron microscopy and surface micro-Raman spectroscopy reveal the complete amorphization of all the samples when irradiated at room temperature and 100°C and a remaining crystallinity when irradiated at 200°C. The latter observations reveal a multi-band irradiated layer consisting in a partially amorphized band near the surface and an in-depth amorphous band. Also, nanocrystalline SiC grains with high stacking fault densities can be found embedded in amorphous SiC at the maximum damage zone of the Hi-Nicalon type S fibers irradiated at 200°C.

Hi Nicalon type S (HNS) SiC fiber and 6H-SiC single crystals have been irradiated with 4 MeV Au3+ at room temperature (RT) and to a fluence of 2 × 1015 cm−2. These irradiation conditions lead to the complete amorphization of the irradiated layer in both samples. Post-irradiation thermal annealing effect on the amorphized samples has been characterized in situ with both Environmental Scanning (E-SEM) and Transmission (TEM) Electron Microscopes. E-SEM observations reveal cracking and exfoliation of the amorphous layer in both samples for temperatures between 850 and 1000 °C. In parallel, TEM observations reveal recrystallization of the amorphous layer in both samples. Even though TEM thin foil specimens did not suffer mechanical failure during the tests, the good agreement between the recrystallization temperatures – 870 °C for the single crystal and 900 °C for the HNS fiber – place the recrystallization process as the stress source for the cracking and exfoliation phenomena. Crack detail of a Hi Nicalon type S SiC fiber triggered by the post-irradiation thermal annealing.

Positive energy balance from overeating is one cause for obesity. A factor that influences the motivation to eat is food reinforcement, assessed by how hard someone will work for food when different types of food or food versus another commodity are concurrently available (1). Food reinforcement is cross-sectionally related to obesity (2–4) and prospectively related to weight gain (5, 6). Energy intake mediates the relationship between food reinforcement and Body Mass Index (BMI) (7). High food reinforcement in the absence of strong alternative reinforcers predicts poor weight loss in children participating in behavioral treatment (8). Decision making involves not only concurrent choices assessed in food reinforcement, but also intertemporal choices, such as the choice about whether to choose a small immediate reward or a larger, delayed reward. This type of choice is thought of as delay of gratification or delay discounting, which has also been cross-sectionally related to obesity (9–11) and prospectively related to weight gain (12, 13). The ability to delay gratification is also a predictor of child weight loss in structured treatment programs (8). High food reinforcement and the inability to delay gratification interact to influence eating (14) as well as weight loss (8), such that those who are high in food reinforcement and cannot delay gratification consume more calories and lose less weight than those who are high in food reinforcement but can delay gratification. The balance between the motivation to consume food and the inability to delay gratification is called reinforcement pathology (15, 16). One useful analogy to put this balance into perspective of everyday behaviors is to relate reinforcement pathology to driving a car, with the motivation to eat represented by the accelerator, and self-control represented by the brake. People with reinforcement pathology have too much gas to stimulate eating, and inadequate brakes when they try to stop or prevent eating. These two factors represent different aspects of brain activation, with reinforcement processes related to mesolimbic and mesocortical activation, while delay of gratification is related to frontal activation, and is considered to be part of executive function (17, 18). One important hypothesis that has not yet been tested is the relationship between reinforcement pathology and BMI. Based on the existing research, it is expected that food reinforcement and delay discounting would be related to BMI, with highest BMI for those with reinforcement pathology, who are high in food reinforcement and unable to delay gratification.

a counterion for the isolation of reactive cations, and for activation of catalysts in organic synthesis. Its unique electronic and molecular structures render 1 as an attractive starting material for the construction of various functional molecules and bioactive/pharmaceutical building blocks. However, progress in the synthesis of such materials is hindered by the lack of methods for the functionalization of 1. In particular, no efficient general methods are available for introduction of aryl and sp/sp-hybridized carbon centers at the carbon vertex of C1-carborane. A cross-coupling reaction is an obvious method for the introduction of aryl groups and sp/sp-hybridized carbon centers at the carbon vertex of C1-carborane derivatives, but has not yet been successful. 10] The intrinsic difficulty appears to be associated mainly with the sterically hindered and hypervalent nature of the vertex carbon atom in 1. We report herein a general and efficient copper-mediated C C cross-coupling reaction of 1 under palladium catalysis that yields a variety of C-functionalized C1-carborane derivatives and provides a basic architecture for pharmacophores and functional materials. The reaction is demonstrated not only for the parent C1-carborane but also its B-halogenated derivatives. To demonstrate utility of the method and the resulting new class of compounds, we describe the synthesis of multivalent anions and disclose preliminary results of the biological activity and liquid crystal behavior of selected derivatives. We commenced our studies by screening for a suitable metal species at the C1-carborane carbon vertex for crosscoupling reaction with aryl iodide 2a under palladium catalysis (Table 1). Reactions of various zinc carborate derivatives 1a (i.e. Negishi-type reaction), including zincate complexes, were unsuccessful (Table 1, entry 1). The Suzuki–Miyaura-type cross-coupling with pinacol borate 1b was also examined under a variety of conditions, but failed to give the desired product, affording only halogenated C1carboranes, with most of the pinacol borate moiety remaining intact (Table 1, entry 2). These results imply that the nature of the vertex carbon atom with respect to transmetalation is quite different from that of typical aryl or alkyl carbon atoms. After extensive screening of other systems, we found that a combination of copper(I) carborate 1c and a palladium catalyst promoted the coupling reaction with 2a at room temperature to give the desired product 3a (Table 1, Scheme 1. C1-carborane (1).

Summary Ophiostomatoid fungi are carried by various bark beetles. However, very little is known about the role of these fungi in conifer roots. We studied ophiostomatoid fungi in roots of dying and dead Pinus sylvestris trees and tested the potential phytotoxicity of some isolates using a sensitive bioassay with Lepidium sativum in Poland. Fungi were identified based on their morphology and DNA sequencing. Three ophiostomatoid fungi, Leptographium procerum, Sporothrix inflata and Ophiostoma pallidulum, were isolated from the roots. The most abundant soil-borne fungus, S. inflata, and relatively rare O. pallidulum were isolated for the first time from roots of dying and dead pine trees. The frequency of S. inflata and O. pallidulum correlated with tree decline. The fungi were isolated more frequently from roots of dead than dying trees. Sporothrix inflata and O. pallidulum slightly reduced the stem and root growth of L. sativum. Leptographium procerum reduced more significantly root than stem growth. This species reduced root elongation 32–54% after 10–17 days of incubation.

Summary The aim of this study was to identify fungi associated with Cryphalus piceae on European silver fir(Abies alba) in Poland and to test the pathogenicity of selected isolates. Fungi were isolated from fivepopulations of overwintered adults and their galleries. A great diversity of taxa was associated withC. piceae. In total, 2487 isolates, including 58 species distributed in 25 genera, were obtained. The twomost frequently isolated fungi, an undescribed species of the genus Geosmithia and Ophiostomapiceae,appeared to be specifically associated with C. piceae, whereas Pesotum fragrans, Pesotum sp. andSporothrix sp. were sporadically associated. Two-year-old seedlings of silver fir were wound-inoculated with three species of fungi (Geosmithia sp., O. piceae and Pesotum sp.) recovered fromC. piceae. Only Pesotum sp. showed pathogenic ability, but we do not consider it to be an importantpathogen of A. alba. 1 Introduction The European silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) is a native species of the mountains of southernand central Europe. It is also found in Belarus, Asia and the Caucasus Mountains. InPoland, silver fir occurs in the Sudeten, the Carpathian and the S´wie˛tokrzyskie Mountains,but only forms pure stands in the eastern Carpathians (Boratyn´ski 1983). For many years,a gradual decline in its vigour has been observed in the Polish mountains, particularly in theSudeten Mountains (Bernadzki 1983). Recent studies have shown that, although abundantregeneration of the silver fir occurs in these areas (Jaworski et al. 1995; Filipiak andUfnalski 2004), significant tree damage is present. The fir stands, weakened by manyabiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors, are attacked by phloem-feeding insects. Amongstthe bark beetles, which are secondary pests in these forests, considerable economic damageis caused by the silver fir bark beetle Cryphalus piceae (Ratz.) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)(Michalski and Mazur 1999).Cryphalus piceae occurs in Europe and Asia, affecting several species of fir (Abies), buthas also been recorded from species of Pinus, Picea and Larix. It is usually found in themountainous regions of Poland where A. alba occurs. The fir bark beetle has a singlegeneration per year in mountain areas. Adults fly in May and June, and larvae develop inthe summer. Cryphalus piceae mainly attacks the branches and trunks of weakened, dyingand wind-fallen trees and speeds up the dieback process in weakened fir stands (Michalskiand Mazur 1999).Many bark beetle species carry ophiostomatoid fungi capable of causing blue-stain infreshly cut logs and, sometimes, damage to living trees. In some cases, the relationship isextremely close, as between Ips sexdentatus (Bo¨rn.) and Ophiostoma ips (Rumb.) Nannf.For. Path. 40 (2010) 133–144 doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0329.2009.00620.x 2009 Blackwell Verlag GmbH

Neben der architektonisch ansprechenden Form weist die neue Elbebrucke Muhlberg mit Betongelenken aus selbstverdichtendem und hochfestem Beton technische Neuheiten auf. Fur die Bemessung der Betongelenke sind Erganzungen und Modifikationen der vorhandenen Bemessungsregeln gemas [1] erforderlich. Weiterhin ist die umfangliche Erstanwendung von selbstverdichtendem und hochfestem Beton im Bruckenbau eine weitere Herausforderung fur die Beteiligten. In diesem Beitrag werden die neu aufgestellten Bemessungsregeln fur die Betongelenke zusammenfassend erlautert und uber die Erfahrungen im Zusammenhang mit der Anwendung von selbstverdichtendem und hochfestem Beton im Bruckenbau berichtet. Concrete Hinge made of self compacting and high strength concrete for the new Elbe-Bridge Muhlberg. Additional to a sophisticated architectural design the new Elbe-Bridge Muhlberg shows technical novelty with concrete hinges made of self compacting and high strength concrete. For the design of concrete hinge in this construction few modifications and additions to the available design rules according to [1] are necessary. Furthermore the use of self compacting and high strength concrete in great volume is a challenge. In this paper the new design rules for concrete hinge are explained and the know how regarding on the use of self compacting and high strength in bridge construction are reported.

The hormonal and antifertility activity of an organosilicon compound 26-cis-diphenylhexamethylcyclotetrasiloxane was studied in the female rate. The compound was administered to mature castrate rats for the estrogenicity tests and to randomly selected females for pregnancy tests by gavage in concentrations ranging from .001-100 mg/ml of sesame oil/kg body weight. .005 mg/kg of estradiol benzoate and .01 mg/kg of diethylstilbestrol (DES) were administered subcutaneously. The dosing was done at 0800-0900 hours for 3 days for the estrogenicity tests and at various times during pregnancy. In the tubal transport studies the oviducts and uteri were flushed with saline and the ova were counted and classified as undivided or as fragmented. This organosilicon compound was shown to be an orally active estrogen since 1 mg/kg was equivalent to .005 mg/kg of estradiol benzoate used as a maximum stimulatory dose in the uterotropic assay. It was an effective oral postcoital antifertility agent when .33 mg/kg was administered on Days 1-5 of gestation and 3 mg/kg on Day 1 of gestation. An accelerated passage of ova to the uterus and induction of ovum destruction in the oviduct appeared to be the primary effect. This compound was similar to DES in that tubal retention did not occur as shown for estradiol benzoate. Administration at various times during gestation terminated pregnancy during primitive streak and neurla stages (Days 8-11) but not after Day 11. This compound may be useful in the study of estrogen stru cture-activity relationships.

Summary The association between Pityogenes bidentatus and fungi was studied in young, managed Pinus sylvestris stands in Poland. Fungi were isolated from emerged adults and their galleries collected from four populations. In total, 2089 fungal isolates including 42 species, were obtained. Penicillium sp. 1 and Geosmithia sp. 1 were the most commonly isolated fungi from beetles (49% and 41% of beetles respectively). Geosmithia sp. 1 species was the dominant species in P. bidentatus galleries with a frequency of occurrence of 57.9%. Hormonema dematioides was the second most abundant fungus in gallery systems (17.1% of wood samples). Two of the isolated Geosmithia species were previously undescribed. Pityogenes bidentatus also vectored three ophiostomatoid species: Ophiostoma minus, O. piceae and Graphium sp. ‘W’. These species were occasionally isolated from beetles and their galleries, suggesting a non-specific relationship.