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Objective: To characterize the efficiency of screening through high-volume community health campaigns (CHCs) by comparing the costs and population reach and identify factors associated with gains in efficiency. Access to effective cervical cancer screening remains limited in low-resource settings, especially in rural areas. Periodic CHCs are a novel method of offering screening for HPV at lower costs and higher population coverage than health facilities., Methods: A micro-costing study was conducted within a cervical cancer screening trial to measure efficiency (cost per woman screened) and population uptake of HPV-based screening offered through CHCs in Migori County, Kenya between January and September 2016. Regression analysis assessed relationships between population size and efficiency. Structured observations and qualitative interviews identified implementation factors that affected efficiency in individual campaigns., Results: Communities screening through CHCs had costs per woman screened ranging from US $22.06 to $30.21. Efficiency was directly correlated to overall numbers of women screened, but not to proportion of population screened. Modifiable factors that acted as context-specific facilitators and barriers with a potential impact on efficiency were identified., Conclusion: There was substantial variation in efficiency among CHCs. Cultural factors, health beliefs, and poor coordination among implementation partners as potential key barriers to screening uptake were identified., (© 2019 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.)

Objective: To determine the effectiveness of community health campaigns (CHCs) as a strategy for human papillomavirus (HPV)-based cervical cancer screening in rural western Kenya., Methods: Between January and November 2016, a cluster-randomized trial was carried out in 12 communities in western Kenya to investigate high-risk HPV testing offered via self-collection to women aged 25-65 years in CHCs versus government health facilities. Outcome measures were the total number of women accessing cervical cancer screening and the proportion of HPV-positive women accessing treatment., Results: In total, 4944 women underwent HPV-based cervical cancer screening in CHCs (n=2898) or health facilities (n=2046). Screening uptake as a proportion of total eligible women in the population was greater in communities assigned to CHCs (60.0% vs 37.0%, P<0.001). Rates of treatment acquisition were low in both arms (CHCs 39.2%; health facilities 31.5%; P=0.408)., Discussion: Cervical cancer screening using HPV testing of self-collected samples reached a larger proportion of women when offered through periodic CHCs compared with health facilities. The community-based model is a promising strategy for cervical cancer prevention. Lessons learned from this trial can be used to identify ways of maximizing the impact of such strategies through greater community participation and improved linkage to treatment. ClinicalTrials.gov registration: NCT02124252., (© 2017 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.)

Objective: To evaluate cervical cancer knowledge, risk perception, and screening intention among women attending outpatient clinics in rural Kenya., Methods: A cross-sectional oral survey was conducted among non-pregnant women aged 23-64 years who attended one of 11 western Kenyan health facilities for any reason between March 25 and April 26, 2013. Demographic and clinical predictors were identified using bivariate and multivariate regression analyses., Results: Among 419 participants, 327 (78.0%) had heard of cervical cancer screening. Nevertheless, their specific knowledge was low (mean score 8.6±2.4 [out of 15.0]). Overall, 288 (68.7%) women felt at risk for cervical cancer, and 333 (79.5%) stated that they would undergo screening if offered. Women who intended to undergo screening were less likely to attend a district hospital (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 0.4; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.2-0.6) and more likely to have been diagnosed with HIV more than 4 years previously (AOR 0.4; 95% CI 0.2-0.6). Additionally, increased screening acceptance was associated with high knowledge scores (P=0.004)., Conclusion: Educational interventions to increase knowledge about cervical cancer might increase screening uptake in low-income settings. Additionally, improvements in services at local health facilities could have a large effect., (Copyright © 2014 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the prevalence of invasive cervical cancer (ICC) and assess access to, and outcomes of, treatment for ICC among HIV-infected women in Kisumu, Kenya., Methods: We performed a retrospective chart review to identify women diagnosed with ICC between October 2007 and June 2012, and to examine the impact of a change in the referral protocol. Prior to June 2009, all women with ICC were referred to a regional hospital. After this date, women with stage IA1 disease were offered treatment with loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) in-clinic., Results: Of 4308 women screened, 58 (1.3%) were diagnosed with ICC. The mean age at diagnosis was 34years (range, 22-50years). Fifty-four (93.1%) women had stage IA1 disease, of whom 36 (66.7%) underwent LEEP, 7 (12.9%) had a total abdominal hysterectomy, and 11 (20.4%) had unknown or no treatment. At 6, 12, and 24months after LEEP, 8.0% (2/25), 25.0% (6/24), and 41.2% (7/17) of women had a recurrence of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2 or worse, respectively., Conclusion: Most HIV-positive women diagnosed with ICC through screening had early-stage disease. The introduction of LEEP in-clinic increased access to treatment; however, recurrence was high, indicating the need for continued surveillance., (© 2013.)

Objective: To evaluate outcomes of cervical cancer screening within HIV care and treatment clinics in Kenya., Methods: Beginning in October 2007, visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA), colposcopy, and loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) were added to the clinical services offered at Family AIDS Care and Education Services (FACES) clinics in Kisumu, Kenya, after a systematic campaign to build capacity and community awareness., Results: From October 2007 to October 2010, 3642 women underwent VIA as part of routine HIV care. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2/3 was identified in 259 (7.1%) women, who were offered excisional treatment by LEEP in the clinic. Among those women offered screening, uptake was 87%. Clinical staff reported a high level of satisfaction with training for and implementation of cervical cancer screening strategies., Conclusion: Cervical cancer screening and prevention are feasible, acceptable, and effective within HIV care and treatment clinics. Screening test performance characteristics need to be defined for an HIV-positive population to determine the cost/benefit ratio of lower cost strategies that will ultimately be necessary to provide universal access to cervical cancer screening in low-resource settings., (Copyright © 2011 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)