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This study is based on findings from the Attitudes to Ageing in Australia (AAA) component of Australian Survey of Social Attitudes (AuSSA). The AAA Study is funded by the ARC Centre of Excellence in Population Ageing Research (CEPAR)

Objective To explore differences between older male caregivers and non‐caregivers on health status, health behaviours and well‐being, including symptoms of anxiety. Methods Data were collected through self‐completed questionnaires and face‐to‐face interviews with 1705 community living men aged ≥70 in the Concord Health and Ageing in Men Project. Results Eleven per cent of older men were caregivers, of whom 81.7% were looking after their wives or partners. Older male caregivers did not have worse physical health or more depressive symptoms than non‐caregivers, but being a caregiver was associated with increased likelihood of reporting anxiety symptoms (OR: 2.32, 95% CI: 1.39–3.87). Caregivers had similar levels and frequencies of leisure activities but did more housework activities than non‐caregivers. Conclusion Higher anxiety levels were the main adverse health condition in older male caregivers. Strategies to assist minimising anxiety for caregivers should be a target of interventions. NHMRC, Ageing and Alzheimer's Institute, Cognitive Decline Partnership Centre (CDPC)

Aim To describe and compare the mental health and physical functioning of community-dwelling men aged 70 years and over who live alone, and those who live with their partner/spouse. Method Data were obtained from the baseline survey of the New South Wales 45 and Up Study. Mental health was measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale and physical health was measured using the Medical Outcome Short Form 36 physical functioning scale. Results 37 690 community-dwelling men aged 70 years or over were included in the analyses. Men living alone were more likely to have high psychological distress scores and lower physical functioning scores compared to men living with a spouse/partner within each age group, except those 85 and over. Conclusions Specific health and welfare programs targeted to the increasing number of older men living alone may be needed to address their higher levels of psychological distress and lower levels of physical functioning.

Introduction Baby Boomers are working and living longer than their pre-war counterparts, and are more likely to live in high density urban housing. This paper examines the relationship between housing type, working status and location of residence on health status in Baby Boomers. Methods We investigated location of residence and housing type in 1009 participants of the Ageing Baby Boomers in Australia (ABBA) Study to identify any predictors of, or correlations between, these variables and health status. Results Current workers were less likely to report depression than retirees. We found a significantly higher rate of diabetes, obesity and hypertension in retirees than in current workers however rates of obesity, diabetes and hypertension were higher than predicted in current workers. Conclusion The rates of chronic disease are higher than previous estimates and provide evidence to inform health promotion programs designed to increase physical activity and improve eating habits in baby boomers.

Over the past three decades, the United Nations (UN) has slowly devoted increasing attention to global ageing. Concern for individually based welfare or health-care programs for older people in developed countries has progressed to also consider the contributions of older people and implications of ageing for socioeconomic advancement in developing countries, including those in Asia Oceania. These shifts are evident in the International Plans of Action on Ageing from Vienna in 1982 to Madrid in 2002; recent 10-year reviews of the Madrid Plan; and current advocacy for inclusion of ageing in the influential UN Millennium Plan post-2015. Australia has demonstrated progressive policies and contributed to ageing developments by the UN, International Federation on Ageing the World Health Organization and the International Association of Gerontology. Key ideas driving further action are the importance of valuing people at all ages, addressing inequalities over the life-course and implementing human rights approaches to ageing.

AIM: The aims of the present study were to describe the trajectories of self-reported hearing difficulties over time, and evaluate the impacts of age, sex, lifestyle factors and social activity, in explaining individual differences in patterns of change over time. METHODS: As part of the Melbourne Longitudinal Studies on Healthy Aging (MELSHA) Program, the hearing status of 947 adults aged 65 years and older, across five measurement periods (over 10 years), were analyzed using Latent Growth Curve Modeling analysis. A multidimensional survey was also administered, which included questions relating to sociodemographic variables, self-reported hearing difficulties, nutrition, smoking habits and level of social activity. RESULTS: Although there was a general increase in hearing difficulties over time, older age, poor nutrition, a lifetime of smoking and increased social activity predicted more rapid increases in hearing difficulty over time. CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the importance of lifestyle factors in reducing the rate of perceived hearing difficulties in older people, and provide further evidence of the links between lifestyle and sensory loss in older people. Poor nutrition and smoking are areas that both clinicians and public health professionals should address in their work with older people.

Aim: Research from around the Western World has shown that psychological, socioeconomic and demographic factors can influence levels of financial planning. This study aims to determine how these factors interrelate to predict planning outcomes. Method: Data from the Ageing Baby Boomers in Australia Study were used to examine the effects of multiple factors on financial planning for 709 employed Australians nearing retirement. Results: The results showed that higher income, future time perspective (FTP) and financial knowledge independently predicted levels of retirement planning. The effects of FTP and financial knowledge on financial planning were consistent across levels of socioeconomic status. Conclusions: While similar issues in financial planning appeared across socioeconomic status, a ‘one size fits all’ approach to retirement policy may not be effective. Instead, policy should be targeted towards the diverse needs of different groups. Raising public awareness of FTP and financial knowledge may provide a useful starting point.

This paper presents innovative applications of spatial microsimulation techniques to develop estimates of the small area distribution of deep economic disadvantage and relative economic advantage among Australians 55 years and older, combining data on disposable income, main source of income, and housing tenure. The spatial microsimulation model produces synthetic small area measures of economic disadvantage and advantage among older people that are multidimensional. This approach recognises that income levels alone may not adequately capture the complexity of relative advantage and disadvantage among older people. We particularly focus here on addressing and investigating the limits of spatial microsimulation modelling, describing and testing a number of possible methods for validating the synthetic estimates and identifying ongoing challenges and opportunities in the estimation of older adults' economic characteristics at a small area level. We find that, once we have adjusted the benchmarks to better match our research and excluded from our analysis small areas for which the modelling is unable to produce accurate results (often because of small sample sizes or unusual population characteristics), we are able to accurately match our synthetic estimates with known small area data, with Pearson's R values between 0.95 and 0.98. Our final results show substantial small area differences in economic advantage and disadvantage among older Australians and point to the need for understanding the geographic aspects of diversity in the older population. Such an understanding will allow for the development and appropriate targeting of policy responses to the needs of older people of modest economic means. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Aim: This study attempts to identify any association between length of exposure to urban environmental risk and non-infectious chronic disease in a group of Australian residents who lived in the same location for at least 20 years. Methods: Using Australian survey data, we selected 1256 participants who were 45 years and older and had lived in the same location for at least 20 years. We used logistic regression and survival analysis to identify factors associated with the presence of non-infectious chronic disease at baseline and after 7 years. Results: Results show that increasing age, living in an urban area and living in an area with a lower socioeconomic status increase the odds of having a long-term health condition. Conclusion: This study provides empirical evidence that older long-term Australian urban residents are more likely to have a non-infectious chronic disease, which may be associated with environmental exposure, than those living in rural locations.

Background Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and death may be associated with depression and antidepressants, but published findings remain equivocal. The authors aimed to determine the risk of CVD incidence and death associated with several classifications of depression. Methods A prospective cohort study was conducted (1994–2006) in a regionally representative sample of 1000 non-institutionalised older Australians age 65+ years (47% men). Endpoints were non-fatal CVD incidence and death over 10 and 12-years, respectively. Depression incidence was assessed at 2-years. Depression related predictors were defined by symptoms (Psychogeriatric Assessment Scales, depression scale) and/or antidepressants to determine independent and/or joint effects on endpoints. Cox regressions determined unadjusted and multiple-adjusted (for significant covariates) hazard ratios (HR). Results Baseline response rate was 70.3%. Aggregate dropout rate was approximately 24% for survivors at biennial follow-ups, but death status was ascertained for all participants. Several classifications of depression predicted death in unadjusted analyses (39–60% >1), but effects disappeared in multiple-adjusted analyses (in which all HRs became

Aim: The purpose of this study was to develop a Community Care Research Agenda to give direction to research across community-based services for older people, for the next 3–5 years. Methods: This study used a four-round Delphi method to verify, rate and rank research questions and issues identified by sector stakeholders. Thirty panellists were selected to represent all key stakeholder groups within community care. Results: The research agenda comprises the 30 questions/topics, in ranked order, considered by the panellists to be of the highest priority. The largest subgroups of issues pertain to approaches to care (30%), program outcomes and effectiveness (13%), funding (10%), and workforce (10%). Conclusion: Having a National Community Care Research Agenda will provide focus and direction for researchers, service providers and funders in developing and conducting high priority, high value research that can inform improvements in policy and practice in community care for older people.

Aim: To investigate the travel habits and preferences of city-dwelling older Australians with a falls risk, and factors influencing outings. Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional survey was conducted with 96 community-dwelling adults with a falls risk. Results: The mean age of participants was 78.2 years (SD 5.33). The majority were women (77%). Most (75%) went on five or more outings per week (mean 6.9 outings). Men drove more than women (41% vs 31%). Shopping was the most common reason for outings. Walking was the most frequent mode of travel, and buses were both the easiest and most difficult. Factors that enabled bus travel included bus stop location, good services and cheap fares. Primary reasons for restricting outings were poor health, transport barriers, neighbourhood safety and personal motivation. Conclusion: These older adults went out nearly every day. Findings can be used to improve transport services for older people.

Aim: The aim of this qualitative study was to explore baby boomers' views and plans in the early days of the global financial crisis (GFC) in 2008. Methods: Informants from National Seniors Australia were interviewed in 15 focus groups conducted nationally. Transcripts were analysed by themes from semi-structured questions. Results: The GFC was found to shake the confidence and plans of boomers. Many workers decided to delay retirement and save longer following losses in superannuation. Those retired on market-linked superannuation felt forced to reduce expenses and restrain lifestyles. Those on full pensions were relatively unaffected. Conclusion: The GFC called into question boomers' expectations for retirement. While financial markets are showing signs of recovery, the GFC had precipitated a decision to work longer and to draw conservatively on retirement savings that may take many years to recover. The volatility of financial and employment markets underscores the value of the Age pension.

Aim: This paper examines the impact of the global financial crisis (GFC) on employed Australian baby boomers. Methods: A nationally representative sample of 1009 boomers aged 50–64 years completed a survey by telephone interview mid 2009. Results: Compared with 1 year ago, 38.9% of working boomers reported being financially worse off and this was more so for women (42.4%) than men (35.6%). Following the GFC, 41.4% of women and 31.9% of men had decided to postpone their retirement plans. Conclusion: The GFC is affecting the retirement preparations and plans of Australia's baby boomers. Policy implications include reduced resources for retirement needs, and uneven and differential impacts for those with interrupted employment histories, notably women.

The first Australian baby boomers are starting to retire. Consequently, it is essential to develop and apply a strong evidence base to facilitate their successful retirement and ongoing wellbeing. This review focuses on recent literature on pre-retirement baby boomers to identify available research findings and gaps to be filled on retirement preparation. A notable shortage of empirical literature was found on pathways to retirement and financial plans. A trend emerged towards an intention to retire at an older age, and the main source of retirement income was expected to be superannuation. Over half of Australian boomers expect their savings to be sufficient; however, 30-50% anticipate a decline in their standard of living. The majority want the responsibility for funding retirement shared between the individual, government and employers. Further research is needed on the varying plans and expectations of men and women, of low-skilled workers, and those from culturally diverse backgrounds.

Objective: To demonstrate the value of comparing data from multiple cohort studies using the example of self-rated health (SRH). Methods: Seven Australian cohort studies including comparable data on SRH were identified. Comparisons of the distributions of SRH were conducted, and logistic regression was used to evaluate age, sex and education effects within studies. A nationally representative survey was used as a statistical reference to determine how studies differed from the Australian population in frequencies of responses. Results: Ratings of SRH declined with increasing age. Low education was associated with higher frequencies of fair/poor SRH even in young adulthood but there were no sex differences. Results for smaller studies did not necessarily differ from nationally representative studies. Conclusion: Collaborative reanalysis of Australian cohort permits analysis of health outcomes from a large numbers of participants. Health outcomes and their sociodemographic determinants may be more comprehensively evaluated through such collaborative projects.

Objectives: To explore the importance of choice in retirement decisions for subsequent well-being.Methods: A sequential ‘mixed methods’ strategy using qualitative (focus groups) and quantitative (prospective panel survey) methods was adopted. Eleven focus groups were conducted and transcripts were analysed for themes. The panel study (n = 601) comprised mature-age employees who retired or were made redundant in 1998–1999 and were followed up for three years post-retirement.Results: The findings of the qualitative and quantitative studies were congruent. The qualitative study identified a sense of choice as central to understanding how people adjust to the retirement transition, and the quantitative study confirmed that choice was a strong, consistent predictor of several health and well-being outcomes and identified predictors of having a sense of choice in retirement. Conclusion: Enabling retirees to retain a sense of choice and control is very important to well-being immediately after retirement and up to three years later. Key words: longitudinal survey, psychosocial factors, qualitative research, retirement.

Objectives: This paper discusses the utilisation of oral health-care services by older adults in Melbourne, Australia, and factors associated with their use. Methods: The study involved 993 older adults who participated in the Melbourne Longitudinal Studies on Healthy Ageing baseline data collection. Results: Nearly 38% of respondents had used oral health services in the previous year. Another 4% had not visited a dentist for more than 5 years. Recent use of dental services was associated with five predictors: higher level of education, non-pension sources of income, lower age, more social support and higher levels of depression. Conclusion: This study provides important information about dental utilisation by older Melbournians. Lack of information on dentition status, and type of dental visits limits the interpretation of the data, highlighting the need to collect relevant information that would inform the design of longitudinal studies aimed at determining predictors of use of oral health services by older Australians.

This study refutes negative ageist stereotypes of how older people view themselves and society by reporting on their freely expressed main hope and main fear for the future. Data were collected through a population based cross-sectional telephone interview survey conducted in NSW in 1999/2000. Participants (n=8,881) were randomly selected community dwelling older Australians (65+). Analyses revealed that participants were more likely to express a hope than a fear, and that a sizeable proportion of their hopes and fears were focused outwardly to family, or more broadly to social and environmental issues both locally and globally. These latter hopes and fears indicate awareness, interest and concern on a wide range of issues outside self and family. Some differences by gender and age were identified but views varied considerably among individuals. These findings provide evidence to dispel the negative image of older people as a self interested undifferentiated group whose members become progressively fearful as they age, by revealing an altruistic and outwardly focused dimension.

Objectives:To describe the effectiveness of recruitment strategies used for a randomised trial of a fall prevention program. Methods:Community-residing persons (n = 310) aged 70 years or older and at risk of falling were recruited using promotional materials, health professional referrals, media, community presentations, mail outs, and friends/relatives. Mail and telephone recruitment strategies were able to be compared to actual recruitment yields, with costs reported for each. Results:Mail outs by organisations had response rates between 3.1 and 7.7%, with recruitment yields between 1.8 and 4.4%. Local media editorials were low cost and useful. Gender and physical status of participants varied according to the recruitment method, with multisources producing a reasonably representative sample. Conclusions:Databases and mail outs using personalised letters were the most effective recruitment strategies for a community-based preventive program. This study contributes to the expanding evidence of the kinds of recruitment that are more effective, considering the context of the study and the intervention.

Objective: To explore the range of expectations and plans for retirement of Australian baby boomers in order to inform policy. Methods: A qualitative study of participants recruited to 12 focus groups in NSW in 2004, grouped by socioeconomic status, gender and geographical location. Topics raised included work, retirement and financial and other planning. Transcriptions of the sessions were analysed manually to identify the range of views on each topic and any variation by the selected study variables. Results: Although some baby boomers had planned for their retirement many had not. Socioeconomic status was the most important variable associated with planning. Conclusions: The findings increase our understanding of how baby boomers from different backgrounds are thinking and planning for their retirement. Baby boomers from low socioeconomic backgrounds consider that responsibility for retirement funding should rest either solely, or partially, with the government as they have not had time to accumulate sufficient superannuation.

Aim: This paper presents social science understandings of successful aging for a broad audience in multidisciplinary gerontology in Asia–Oceania. Methods: The international literature on social science aspects of successful aging is reviewed with a focus on Asia and social improvement. Results: New positive approaches to aging research are identifying opportunities for maintaining capacities and well-being over the life course. Successful aging, productive aging, and active aging are key concepts. Increasing life expectancy and fertility control are major social achievements that underpin population aging as the mainstream social transformation facing the world. Asia will be at the forefront of this change and the consequences will vary greatly between cultures, nations, and subgroups within them. Older people generally maintain good quality of life and the capacity to ‘age well’ is influenced by life-long maturation and emotional, social, and economic resources. Good health can be enhanced through positive actions such as physical activity, good nutrition, and not smoking. Mental capacities can also be improved and maintained throughout old age. In advanced old age, the ‘fourth age’, the focus turns to ameliorating the effects of loss and to maintaining dignity. Conclusions: The social sciences contribute knowledge useful for improving life experiences for older people and aging societies. Population aging is central to national economic development. Public policy and individual action concerning aging can benefit all age groups. To better inform these developments it is important to address the serious shortfall of social science research on aging in the Asia–Oceania region.

It is particularly appropriate in the International Year of Older Persons for researchers and policy makers to reflect on their contributions to improving the lives of elderly citizens. In this essay we draw on our two decades of experience as researchers with a focus on understanding the social dimensions of ageing and an interest in the role of research in informing public policy. One of the most significant changes we see over this period is the shift from an essentially paternalistic view that older people need ‘;experts' to identify their needs and make decisions on their behalf to widespread acceptance of older people's rights to have a say - including a right to be active participants in the policy making process. We look in particular at how the voices of elderly people themselves have come to be heard (or not) in the policy process. We begin by considering the context in which policy-relevant research is generally conducted and note some of the key research directions in this field over the past two decades. Next we examine some of the processes through which elderly people have been engaged as participants in the policy process. These include formal consultation with government and direct political action. We point out the particular value of focused qualitative research in giving a voice to those who are otherwise likely to be excluded from the public domain because of poverty, sickness or disability.

Objective: To determine to what extent costs of intensive community care can be predicted and by which factors. Method: Costs of community care services were calculated for 497 clients of Linkages (Community Options) projects in Victoria, Australia, in 1992. Results: Costs to government and carers were found to vary by project and were best predicted by client dependency, client incontinence, male carers and non-resident carers. Additional costs related to length of time as a Linkages client. Conclusion: Client and carer characteristics had limited capacity to predict costs (29% of variance explained).

Objective: To determine how well outcomes could be predicted by initial circumstances and subsequent deterioration in clients and carers. Method: Longitudinal data from the Victorian Linkages projects, collected in 1992 and 1994, were examined. Results: Institutionalisation was highly likely in cases where carers experienced reduced motivation to care. Placement in nursing homes rather than in hostels was best predicted by incontinence. Death was associated with changes in health status. Those clients most successful in avoiding long-term institutional care were in stable situations with a spouse carer. Conclusion: The study provides supportive evidence of the capacity of intensive community services to provide alternatives to entry to residential care.

This paper draws on primary publications in Austalian gerontology to review knowledge on ageing and support While there is a well-established literature on family care, social networks studies of the 1980s provided more comprehensive views of expressive and instrumental support across a range of relationships. Notwithstanding stereotypes to the contrary, older people contribute as well as receive support. A new generation of qualitive, interpretative shudies are reporting on the meanings and processes of social support as experienced by older people themselves. Policy-related studies examine social support as a cornerstone for community services, and epidemiological investigations examine social influence on health and well-being. The field could be advanced considerably by longiturdinal surveys and qualitative enquiris exploring the diversity of older people in a variety of social settings.

This paper draws on primary publications in Australian gerontology to review Australian knowledge on ageinig and families. Government funding has played a large part in increasing psychological research on caregiver stress and applied studies of the needs and supports of older clients of community services. Priorities for further research are: better appreciating diversity among different social groups, revealing older people's own experiences of families, and developing better theoretical frameworks of how individuals fit within broader social structures. Research can play a major part in confronting public misperceptions of ageing and suggest how practitioners can work most effectively with frail older people according to their particular family situations.

The Aged Persons' Homes Act 1954 initiated the now extensive involvement of the Commonwealth Government in funding housing and residential care for older Australians. This article reviews the House and Senate debates related to this legislation from early 1950 to the present. The aim is to identify recurrent themes and ideology underlying the political debate, and their relationship to actual program developments. An understanding of these ideas and expectations can assist in considering options for policy reform in the future.

Housing inequalities accumulate over the life course and take on their greatest force in old age. Among the 95 per cent of older people who continue to live in the community, there is a polarisation between the majority of outright home owners and the minority of permanent private tenants. This article identifies the effect of housing tenure and related public policies on standards of living in retirement. Most importantly, it, concludes that increases of Supplementary Assistance are an immediate priority. A major restructuring of taxation, pension, and housing policy is recommended to resolve the more fundamental problems.

This paper discusses approaches to survey design applied in a large scale study of the aged in Sydney. The subject matter concerns methods of (i) achieving an adequate coverage of topics and rare sub-populations while minimising the need for prolonged interviews and sample weighting; (ii) locating a widely dispersed target population economically, (iii) maintaining control over respondent selection and (iv) ensuring the attainment of objectives despite cost constraints and uncertainty.