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The gender pay gap is a persistent and pervasive problem. This study systematically reviews the literature on two determinants of the wage gap that have attracted attention more recently: the contribution of personality traits and social norms. Based on 39 studies identified, we discuss how personality traits and social norms are operationalized and how much of the gender wage gap they explain. We find that both are important in understanding the gap and that they are closely related, most notably, as preferences are reflections of personality traits and social norms. However, there is no clear consensus on the constructs, what they precisely capture and how to measure them. Thus, there is a great deal of heterogeneity in the results, with the contribution of personality traits and social norms to the pay gap ranging from a few to more than 20%. The literature is not conclusive on whether these factors rather explain the gap or are a source of discrimination. Key limitations of this literature emanate from concerns about the potential endogeneity of personality traits and social norms, and that studies have largely ignored that we can adapt our personality, preferences, and attitudes in adult life.

Funder: United Nations; Id: http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100004420, The evolution of the development discourse is profoundly political. Despite a range of innovations the situation remains much the same, and has led over time to the dominance of the economic growth model. Whilst academic/ideological vigour, policy relevance and institutional support, together with intellectual independence, are essential; too radical an alternative approach would be dismissed by mainstream opinion, either by design or neglect. To survive and to remain influential, any alternative requires the mainstream to engage with it for political feasibility. The development discourse has thus evolved through a delicate balancing act, acknowledging a need for a cautiously optimistic outlook. By tracing changes in two approaches to development (basic needs and human development) and in two global development goals (millennium development goals and sustainable development goals) through their selection and use of indicators, this article explores both the explicit and the implicit power of the mainstream in the past and present alternatives.

Special Issue: The ENIGMA Consortium: the first 10 years., Delineating the association of age and cortical thickness in healthy individuals is critical given the association of cortical thickness with cognition and behavior. Previous research has shown that robust estimates of the association between age and brain morphometry require large-scale studies. In response, we used cross-sectional data from 17,075 individuals aged 3–90 years from the Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Consortium to infer age-related changes in cortical thickness. We used fractional polynomial (FP) regression to quantify the association between age and cortical thickness, and we computed normalized growth centiles using the parametric Lambda, Mu, and Sigma method. Interindividual variability was estimated using meta-analysis and one-way analysis of variance. For most regions, their highest cortical thickness value was observed in childhood. Age and cortical thickness showed a negative association; the slope was steeper up to the third decade of life and more gradual thereafter; notable exceptions to this general pattern were entorhinal, temporopolar, and anterior cingulate cortices. Interindividual variability was largest in temporal and frontal regions across the lifespan. Age and its FP combinations explained up to 59% variance in cortical thickness. These results may form the basis of further investigation on normative deviation in cortical thickness and its significance for behavioral and cognitive outcomes., European Community's Seventh Framework Programme, Grant/Award Numbers: 278948, 602450, 603016, 602805; US National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grant/Award Numbers: RO1HD050735, 1009064, 496682; QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute and the Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland; ICTSI NIH/NCRR, Grant/Award Number: RR025761; European Community's Horizon 2020 Programme, Grant/Award Numbers: 667302, 643051; Vici Innovation Program, Grant/Award Numbers: #91619115, 016-130-669; NWO Brain & Cognition Excellence Program, Grant/Award Number: 433-09-229; Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (Netherlands) (BBMRI-NL); Spinozapremie, Grant/Award Number: NWO-56-464-14192; Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure, Grant/Award Numbers: 184.033.111, 184.021.007; Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMW), Grant/Award Numbers: 480-15-001/674, 024.001.003, 911-09-032, 056-32-010, 481-08-011, 016-115-035, 31160008, 400-07-080, 400-05-717, 451-04-034, 463-06-001, 480-04-004, 904-61-193, 912-10-020, 985-10-002, 904-61-090; NIMH, Grant/Award Number: R01 MH090553; Geestkracht programme of the Dutch Health Research Council, Grant/Award Number: 10-000-1001; FP7 Ideas: European Research Council; Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Grant/Award Numbers: NWO/SPI 56-464-14192, NWO-MagW 480-04-004, 433-09-220, NWO 51.02.062, NWO 51.02.061; National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Grant/Award Number: UL1 TR000153; National Center for Research Resources; National Center for Research Resources at the National Institutes of Health, Grant/Award Numbers: NIH 1U24 RR025736-01, NIH 1U24 RR021992; NIH Institutes contributing to the Big Data to Knowledge; U.S. National Institutes of Health, Grant/Award Numbers: R01 CA101318, P30 AG10133, R01 AG19771; Medical Research Council, Grant/Award Numbers: U54EB020403, G0500092; National Institute of Mental Health, Grant/Award Numbers: R01MH117014, R01MH042191; Fundación Instituto de Investigación Marqués de Valdecilla, Grant/Award Numbers: API07/011, NCT02534363, NCT0235832; Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Grant/Award Numbers: PI14/00918, PI14/00639, PI060507, PI050427, PI020499; Swedish Research Council, Grant/Award Numbers: 523-2014-3467, 2017-00949, 521-2014-3487; South-Eastern Norway Health Authority; the Research Council of Norway, Grant/Award Number: 223273; South Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, Grant/Award Numbers: 2017-112, 2019107; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai; Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), Grant/Award Number: 602450; National Institutes of Health, Grant/Award Numbers: R01 MH116147, R01 MH113619, R01 MH104284; South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust; the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR)

The ability to effectively and automatically regulate one's response to emotional information is a basic, fundamental skill for social functioning. The neural mechanisms underlying emotion regulation processing have been assessed, however few investigations have leveraged neurophysiological techniques, particularly magnetoencephalography (MEG) to determine the development of this critical ability. The current MEG study is the first to examine developmental changes in the neural mechanisms supporting automatic emotion regulation. We used an emotional go/no‐go task with happy and angry faces in a single‐site cohort of 97 healthy participants, 4–40 years of age. We found age‐related changes as a function of emotion and condition in brain regions key to emotion regulation, including the right inferior frontal gyrus, orbitofrontal cortices and primarily right‐lateralized temporal areas. Interaction effects, including an age by emotion and condition, were also found in the left angular gyrus, an area critical in emotion regulation and attention. Findings demonstrate protracted and nonlinear development, due to the adolescent group, of emotion regulation processing from child to adulthood, and highlight that age‐related differences in emotion regulation are modulated by emotional face type.

Exploring typical and atypical brain developmental trajectories is very important for understanding the normal pace of brain development and the mechanisms by which mental disorders deviate from normal development. A precise and sex‐specific brain age prediction model is desirable for investigating the systematic deviation and individual heterogeneity of disorders associated with atypical brain development, such as autism spectrum disorders. In this study, we used partial least squares regression and the stacking algorithm to establish a sex‐specific brain age prediction model based on T1‐weighted structural magnetic resonance imaging and resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging. The model showed good generalization and high robustness on four independent datasets with different ethnic information and age ranges. A predictor weights analysis showed the differences and similarities in changes in structure and function during brain development. At the group level, the brain age gap estimation for autistic patients was significantly smaller than that for healthy controls in both the ABIDE dataset and the healthy brain network dataset, which suggested that autistic patients as a whole exhibited the characteristics of delayed development. However, within the ABIDE dataset, the premature development group had significantly higher Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) scores than those of the delayed development group, implying that individuals with premature development had greater severity. Using these findings, we built an accurate typical brain development trajectory and developed a method of atypical trajectory analysis that considers sex differences and individual heterogeneity. This strategy may provide valuable clues for understanding the relationship between brain development and mental disorders., We established a sex‐specific brain age prediction model based on T1‐weighted structural magnetic resonance imaging and resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging and This model showed good generalization and high robustness on four independent datasets with different ethnic information and age ranges. A predictor weights analysis showed the differences and similarities in changes in structure and function during brain development. Within the ABIDE dataset, the premature development group had significantly higher Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) scores than those of the delayed development group, implying that individuals with premature development had greater severity.

Brain predicted age difference, or BrainPAD, compares chronological age to an age estimate derived by applying machine learning (ML) to MRI brain data. BrainPAD studies in youth have been relatively limited, often using only a single MRI modality or a single ML algorithm. Here, we use multimodal MRI with a stacked ensemble ML approach that iteratively applies several ML algorithms (AutoML). Eligible participants in the Healthy Brain Network (N = 489) were split into training and test sets. Morphometry estimates, white matter connectomes, or both were entered into AutoML to develop BrainPAD models. The best model was then applied to a held‐out evaluation dataset, and associations with psychometrics were estimated. Models using morphometry and connectomes together had a mean absolute error of 1.18 years, outperforming models using a single MRI modality. Lower BrainPAD values were associated with more symptoms on the CBCL (p corr = .012) and lower functioning on the Children's Global Assessment Scale (p corr = .012). Higher BrainPAD values were associated with better performance on the Flanker task (p corr = .008). Brain age prediction was more accurate using ComBat‐harmonized brain data (MAE = 0.26). Associations with psychometric measures remained consistent after ComBat harmonization, though only the association with CGAS reached statistical significance in the reduced sample. Our findings suggest that BrainPAD scores derived from unharmonized multimodal MRI data using an ensemble ML approach may offer a clinically relevant indicator of psychiatric and cognitive functioning in youth., Our study demonstrates that multimodal brain imaging coupled with novel, rigorous machine learning methods has the potential to improve the accuracy of brain age estimation. BrainPAD (or the difference between chronological age and estimated brain age) shows promise as a general measure of risk for psychopathology and cognitive impairment in youth, with some evidence for distinct associations between particular domains and decreased versus increased brain age.

Putative MRI markers of iron in deep gray matter have demonstrated age related changes during discrete periods of healthy childhood or adulthood, but few studies have included subjects across the lifespan. This study reports both transverse relaxation rate (R2*) and quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) of four primary deep gray matter regions (thalamus, putamen, caudate, and globus pallidus) in 498 healthy individuals aged 5–90 years. In the caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, increases of QSM and R2* were steepest during childhood continuing gradually throughout adulthood, except caudate susceptibility which reached a plateau in the late 30s. The thalamus had a unique profile with steeper changes of R2* (reflecting additive effects of myelin and iron) than QSM during childhood, both reaching a plateau in the mid‐30s to early 40s and decreasing thereafter. There were no hemispheric or sex differences for any region. Notably, both R2* and QSM values showed more inter‐subject variability with increasing age from 5 to 90 years, potentially reflecting a common starting point in iron/myelination during childhood that diverges as a result of lifestyle and genetic factors that accumulate with age., In 498 healthy participants from 5 to 90 years of age, R2* and QSM increased with age across the lifespan in the caudate, putamen and globus pallidus, but plateaued at approximately 40 years of age and declined thereafter in the thalamus. The relationship between R2* and QSM differed by structure and across ages. Between‐subject variability was markedly higher in older adults than children, potentially reflecting an accumulation of lifestyle and genetic factors that influence these putative markers of brain iron in later life.

Towards the end of the second trimester of gestation, a human fetus is able to register environmental sounds. This in utero auditory experience is characterized by comprising strongly low-pass-filtered versions of sounds from the external world. Here, we present computational tests of the hypothesis that this early exposure to severely degraded auditory inputs serves an adaptive purpose-it may induce the neural development of extended temporal integration. Such integration can facilitate the detection of information carried by low-frequency variations in the auditory signal, including emotional or other prosodic content. To test this prediction, we characterized the impact of several training regimens, biomimetic and otherwise, on a computational model system trained and tested on the task of emotion recognition. We find that training with an auditory trajectory recapitulating that of a neurotypical infant in the pre-to-postnatal period results in temporally extended receptive field structures and yields the best subsequent accuracy and generalization performance on the task of emotion recognition. This strongly suggests that the progression from low-pass-filtered to full-frequency inputs is likely to be an adaptive feature of our development, conferring significant benefits to later auditory processing abilities relying on temporally extended analyses. Additionally, this finding can help explain some of the auditory impairments associated with preterm births, suggests guidelines for the design of auditory environments in neonatal care units, and points to enhanced training procedures for computational models.

The g‐ratio, defined as the inner‐to‐outer diameter of a myelinated axon, is associated with the speed of nerve impulse conduction, and represents an index of axonal myelination and integrity. It has been shown to be a sensitive and specific biomarker of neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration. However, there have been very few magnetic resonance imaging studies of the g‐ratio in the context of normative aging; characterizing regional and time‐dependent cerebral changes in g‐ratio in cognitively normal subjects will be a crucial step in differentiating normal from abnormal microstructural alterations. In the current study, we investigated age‐related differences in aggregate g‐ratio, that is, g‐ratio averaged over all fibers within regions of interest, in several white matter regions in a cohort of 52 cognitively unimpaired participants ranging in age from 21 to 84 years. We found a quadratic, U‐shaped, relationship between aggregate g‐ratio and age in most cerebral regions investigated, suggesting myelin maturation until middle age followed by a decrease at older ages. As expected, we observed that these age‐related differences vary across different brain regions, with the frontal lobes and parietal lobes exhibiting slightly earlier ages of minimum aggregate g‐ratio as compared to more posterior structures such as the occipital lobes and temporal lobes; this agrees with the retrogenesis paradigm. Our results provide evidence for a nonlinear association between age and aggregate g‐ratio in a sample of adults from a highly controlled population. Finally, sex differences in aggregate g‐ratio were observed in several cerebral regions, with women exhibiting overall lower values as compared to men; this likely reflects the greater myelin content in women's brain, in agreement with recent investigations., Using quantitative MRI, we investigated age‐related differences in aggregate g‐ratio in several white matter regions in a cohort of 52 cognitively unimpaired participants ranging in age from 21 to 84 years. We found a quadratic, U‐shaped, relationship between aggregate g‐ratio and age in most cerebral regions investigated. Sex differences were also observed in several cerebral regions.

A number of studies have indicated alterations of brain morphology in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, how ASD influences the topological organization of the brain cortex at different developmental stages is not yet well characterized. In this study, we used structural images of 492 high‐functioning participants in the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange database acquired from 17 international imaging centers, including 75 autistic children (age 7–11 years), 91 adolescents with ASD (age 12–17 years), and 80 young adults with ASD (age 18–29 years), and 246 typically developing controls (TDCs) that were age, gender, handedness, and full‐scale IQ matched. Cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) were extracted and the covariance between cortical regions across participants were treated as a network to examine developmental patterns of the cortical topological organization at different stages. A center‐paired resampling strategy was developed to control the center bias during the permutation test. Compared with the TDCs, network of SA (but not CT) of individuals with ASD showed reduced small‐worldness in childhood, and the network hubs were reorganized in the adulthood such that hubs inclined to connect with nonhub nodes and demonstrated more dispersed spatial distribution. Furthermore, the SA network of the ASD cohort exhibited increased segregation of the inferior parietal lobule and prefrontal cortex, and insular‐opercular cortex in all three age groups, resulting in the emergence of two unique modules in the autistic brain. Our findings suggested that individuals with ASD may undergo remarkable remodeling of the cortical topology from childhood to adulthood, which may be associated with the altered social and cognitive functions in ASD., This article investigated the developmental trajectory of cortical topology in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) from childhood to adulthood using T1 images acquired from 17 international centers. We found that individuals with ASD were accompanied with reduced small‐worldness in the network of surface area (but not cortical thickness) in the childhood, followed by dispersed hub distribution and decreased network assortativity in adulthood. In addition, there was an induced cross‐age modular reorganization that reorganized insular‐opercular cortex and superior temporal cortex into a new module. These changes indicated reduced robustness of the cortical network, and impaired integration of multiple cognitive functions, leading to the dysfunction in autistic brain across life span.

Studies of socioeconomic disparities have largely focused on correlating brain measures with either composite measure of socioeconomic status (SES), or its components—family income or parental education, giving little attention to the component of parental occupation. Emerging evidence suggests that parental occupation may be an important and neglected indicator of childhood and adolescent SES compared to absolute measures of material resources or academic attainment because, while related, it may more precisely capture position in social hierarchy and related health outcomes. On the other hand, although cortical thickness and surface area are brain measures with distinct genetic and developmental origins, large‐scale neuroimaging studies investigating regional differences in interaction of the composite measure of SES or its components with cortical thickness and surface area are missing. We set out to fill this gap, focusing specifically on the role of parental occupation on cortical thickness and surface area by analyzing magnetic resonance imaging scans from 704 healthy individuals (age = 3–21 years). We observed spatially distributed patterns of (parental occupation × age2) interaction with cortical thickness (localized at the left caudal middle frontal, the left inferior parietal and the right superior parietal) and surface area (localized at the left orbitofrontal cortex), indicating independent sources of variability. Further, with decreased cortical thickness, children from families with lower parental occupation exhibited lower self‐esteem. Our findings demonstrate distinct influence of parental occupation on cortical thickness and surface area in children and adolescents, potentially reflecting different neurobiological mechanisms by which parental occupation may impact brain development., Parental occupation may be an important and neglected indicator of childhood and adolescent socioeconomic status (SES) compared to absolute measures of material resources or academic attainment because, while related, it may more precisely capture position in social hierarchy and related health outcomes. By analyzing magnetic resonance imaging scans from 704 healthy individuals (age = 3–21 years), we observed spatially distributed patterns of (parental occupation × age2) interaction with cortical thickness (localized at the left caudal middle frontal, the left inferior parietal and the right superior parietal) and surface area (localized at the left orbitofrontal cortex), indicating independent sources of variability. Our findings demonstrate distinct influence of parental occupation on cortical thickness and surface area in children and adolescents, potentially reflecting different neurobiological mechanisms by which parental occupation may impact brain development.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have shown notable age‐dependent differences in reward processing. We analyzed data from a total of 554 children, 1,059 adolescents, and 1,831 adults from 70 articles. Quantitative meta‐analyses results show that adults engage an extended set of regions that include anterior and posterior cingulate gyri, insula, basal ganglia, and thalamus. Adolescents engage the posterior cingulate and middle frontal gyri as well as the insula and amygdala, whereas children show concordance in right insula and striatal regions almost exclusively. Our data support the notion of reorganization of function over childhood and adolescence and may inform current hypotheses relating to decision‐making across age., For reward processing, adults engage an extended set of regions that include anterior and posterior cingulate gyri, insula, basal ganglia, and thalamus. Adolescents engage the posterior cingulate and middle frontal gyri as well as the insula and amygdala. Children show concordance in right insula and striatal regions almost exclusively.

BACKGROUND This longitudinal study investigated the temporal stability of social axioms, which are generalised social beliefs, and tested their prospective effects on individuals' flourishing, among students, as well as the extent to which they can be potentially mediated by perceived sense of belonging at school. METHODS Participants were 195 Chinese university students, who voluntarily completed a questionnaire measuring social axioms (at baseline, 1-year follow-up, and 2-year follow-up studies), school belonging (at 1-year follow-up study), and flourishing (at baseline and 2-year follow-up studies). RESULTS Results showed supportive evidence for five types of social axioms being generally stable across these time intervals. After controlling for baseline flourishing, high baseline social cynicism significantly predicted a lower level of follow-up flourishing, whereas high baseline reward for application predicted a higher level of follow-up flourishing. Furthermore, higher levels of social cynicism predicted lower levels of school belonging, and the latter partially mediated the effect of social cynicism on follow-up flourishing. CONCLUSIONS All social axioms are relatively stable across time. Social cynicism, reward for applications, and school belonging are the most salient predictors for flourishing among Chinese university students.

The effective implementation of social protection interventions is key for achieving positive change. The existing literature mainly focuses on issues related to programme design and impact, rather than the factors that influence the emergence, expansion and provision of these programmes. This article builds on the recent literature that indicates that the quality of institutions and people’s preferences play an important role in the implementation of social protection. It does so by using Ethiopia and its Productive Safety Net Programme – one of the largest social protection programmes in sub‐Saharan Africa – as a case study, thereby contributing to debates on how to implement social protection more effectively, particularly in settings of widespread poverty and relatively low levels of institutional capacity. Based on primary qualitative data, the article finds that greater institutional quality at the local level is associated with the more effective provision of social protection. The ability of community members and social protection clients to voice preferences can lead to adaptations in implementation, although the extent to which this occurs is highly gendered. La mise en œuvre effective des interventions de protection sociale est cruciale pour obtenir un changement positif. La litterature existante se concentre avant tout sur des problemes en lien avec la conception et l'impact d'un programme et non sur les facteurs qui influencent l'emergence, l'expansion et la dotation de ces programmes. Le present article s'appuie sur les publications recentes qui indiquent que la qualite des institutions et les preferences des individus jouent un role important dans la mise en œuvre de la protection sociale. Pour ce faire, il realise une etude de cas en se basant sur l'Ethiopie et sur son Programme de filet de securite productif (Productive Safety Net Programme – PSNP) – l'un des plus importants programmes de protection sociale en Afrique subsaharienne – et contribue ainsi aux debats portant sur l'amelioration de l'efficacite de la mise en œuvre de la protection sociale, en particulier dans des contextes de pauvrete generalisee et de niveaux de capacite institutionnelle assez faibles. En se basant sur des donnees qualitatives primaires, l'article conclut qu'il existe une correlation entre une meilleure qualite institutionnelle au niveau local et une dotation plus efficace de la protection sociale. Lorsque les membres de la communaute et les affilies a la protection sociale peuvent exprimer leurs preferences, cela peut engendrer des adaptations dans la mise en œuvre, bien que l'importance de ce phenomene soit, dans une large mesure, sexocentree. La ejecucion efectiva de las intervenciones de proteccion social es crucial para lograr un cambio positivo. La bibliografia existente aborda principalmente las cuestiones relacionadas con el diseno y la incidencia de los programas, y no los factores que influyen en la aparicion, la extension y el suministro de los mismos. Este articulo se basa en los estudios recientes que indican que la calidad de las instituciones y las preferencias del publico desempenan un papel importante en el suministro de la proteccion social. A tal efecto, el articulo realiza un estudio de caso del Programa de Red de Seguridad Productiva (Productive Safety Net Programme – PSNP) de Etiopia, uno de los principales programas de proteccion social del Africa Subsahariana, y contribuye asi a los debates sobre la manera mas efectiva de suministrar la proteccion social, en particular en entornos de pobreza generalizada y con niveles relativamente bajos de capacidad institucional. Sobre la base de datos cualitativos primarios, el articulo muestra que una mayor calidad institucional a nivel local da lugar a un suministro mas efectivo de la proteccion social. La capacidad de los miembros de la comunidad y de los beneficiarios de la proteccion social de expresar sus preferencias puede llevar a adaptar el suministro, aunque en una medida muy influida por la perspectiva de genero. Die wirksame Umsetzung von Sozialschutzmasnahmen ist ein entscheidender Faktor fur das Erreichen positiver Veranderungen. Die bestehende Literatur konzentriert sich vorwiegend auf Fragen der Gestaltung und Wirkung von Programmen, doch Faktoren, die das Auftreten, die Ausweitung und die Bereitstellung dieser Programme beeinflussen, wurden bisher nicht berucksichtigt. Dieser Artikel beruht auf neueren Veroffentlichungen, die zeigen, dass die Qualitat der Institutionen und die Praferenzen der Menschen bei der Umsetzung eines Sozialschutzes eine wichtige Rolle spielen. In einer Fallstudie wird das Produktive Sicherheitsnetz‐Programm (PSNP) Athiopiens – eines der grosten Sozialschutzprogramme in Afrika sudlich der Sahara – untersucht. Die Fallstudie leistet einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Debatte uber die wirksamere Umsetzung von Sozialschutzmasnahmen, vor allem in einem Umfeld verbreiteter Armut und relativ geringer institutioneller Kapazitaten. Ausgehend von primaren qualitativen Daten wurde ermittelt, dass eine grosere institutionelle Qualitat auf lokaler Ebene mit einer wirksameren Bereitstellung von Sozialschutzmasnahmen korreliert. Wenn die Mitglieder der Gemeinschaft und die Kunden der Sozialschutzsysteme Praferenzen ausern konnen, dann kann dies zu einer angepassten Umsetzung fuhren, auch wenn die Bereitschaft dazu stark geschlechtsabhangig ist. Залогом положительных изменений является действенное осуществление мер в области социальной защиты. В имеющейся литературе в основном рассматриваются вопросы, касающиеся разработки программ и их воздействия, а не факторы, которые влияют на появление, расширение и реализацию этих программ. Статья основана на последних работах, показывающих, что качество институтов и предпочтения населения играют важную роль в реализации программ социальной защиты. На примере Эфиопии и её программы Productive Safety Net Programme – одной из крупнейших программ социальной защиты в странах Африки к югу от Сахары – авторы вносят свой вклад в обсуждение вопроса о том, как эффективнее обеспечивать социальную защиту, особенно в условиях широко распространённой бедности и относительно низкого уровня институционального развития. Опираясь на первичные качественные данные, они приходят к выводу о том, что повышение институционального качества на местном уровне ассоциируется с повышением эффективности социальной защиты. Возможность выражать предпочтения членами общества и клиентами системы социальной защиты может способствовать адаптации процесса реализации, хотя степень, в которой это происходит, в значительной мере зависит от гендера. 有效实施社会保护干预措施是实现积极变革的关键。现有文献主要关注计划设计与影响相关问题, 而很少关注影响计划出现、扩张和供给的因素。本文以近期表明机构质量和人口偏好对社会保护实施发挥重要作用的文献为基础, 通过使用埃塞俄比亚及其生产力安全网计划 (PSNP)——撒哈拉以南非洲最大的社会保护计划之一—作为案例研究, 促进了关于如何更加有效地实施社会保护的辩论, 特别是在普遍贫困和机构能力水平相对较低的情况下。根据主要的定性数据, 文章发现基层机构质量的提高与更加有效的社会保护供给相关联。社区成员和社保用户表达偏好的能力可以促进社保实施调整, 尽管调整的程度是高度性别化的。 إن التنفيذ الفعال لتدخلات الحماية الاجتماعية هو أمر أساسي لتحقيق التغيير الإيجابي. وتركز المقالات المكتوبة في هذا المجال بشكل أساسي على المسائل المرتبطة بتصميم البرامج وتأثيرها، عوض التركيز على العوامل التي تؤثر في نشوء هذه البرامج وتوسع نطاقها وتوفيرها. ويستند هذا المقال إلى الكتابات الأخيرة التي تبين أن جودة المؤسسات وتفضيلات الأشخاص تضطلع بدور مهم في تنفيذ الحماية الاجتماعية. ولتبيان ذلك، سنذكر مثال أثيوبيا وبرنامجها للأمان الغذائي للأسر المعيشية (PSNP)، وهو أحد أكبر برامج الحماية الاجتماعية في منطقة أفريقيا جنوب الصحراء، وهذا ما سيساهم في النقاشات حول كيفية تنفيذ خطط الحماية الاجتماعية بفعالية أكبر، لا سيما في سياقات الفقر المستشري والمستويات المنخفضة نسبيا للقدرة المؤسساتية. وخلص هذا المقال، استنادا إلى البيانات النوعية الأولية، أن الجودة المؤسساتية الأكبر على الصعيد المحلي مرتبطة بتوفير فعالية أكبر للحماية الاجتماعية. فمن شأن قدرة أفراد المجتمعات المحلية والمستفيدين من الحماية الاجتماعية على التعبير عن التفضيلات أن يفضي إلى عمليات تكييف في التنفيذ، على الرغم من أن نطاق حدوث ذلك يتأثر بشكل كبير بالاعتبارات الجنسانية. A implementacao eficaz das intervencoes de protecao social e fundamental para produzir mudancas positivas. A literatura especializada existente concentra‐se sobretudo nas questoes relacionadas ao design e ao impacto dos programas, e nao propriamente nos fatores que influenciam o surgimento, a expansao e a provisao desses programas. Este artigo se baseia na literatura especializada recente, indicativa de que a qualidade das instituicoes e as preferencias das pessoas exercem um papel importante na implementacao da protecao social. Para ilustrar isso, ele usa a Etiopia e seu Programa de Rede Produtiva de Seguranca (Productive Safety Net Programme, PSNP) – um dos maiores programas de protecao social da Africa subsaariana – como estudo de caso, contribuindo assim para os debates sobre maneiras de implementar a protecao social mais eficazmente, em especial em ambientes de pobreza generalizada e niveis relativamente baixos de capacidade institucional. Com base em dados qualitativos primarios, o artigo observa que uma maior qualidade institucional no nivel local esta associada a provisao mais eficaz de protecao social. A capacidade dos membros da comunidade e dos clientes da protecao social de formular preferencias pode levar a adaptacoes na implementacao, embora a extensao com que isso ocorre seja altamente limitada por genero.

Glucose transporter type I deficiency syndrome (GLUT1DS) is an encephalopathic disorder due to a chronic insufficient transport of glucose into the brain. PET studies in GLUT1DS documented a widespread cortico‐thalamic hypometabolism and a signal increase in the basal ganglia, regardless of age and clinical phenotype. Herein, we captured the pattern of functional connectivity of distinct striatal, cortical, and cerebellar regions in GLUT1DS (10 children, eight adults) and in healthy controls (HC, 19 children, 17 adults) during rest. Additionally, we explored for regional connectivity differences in GLUT1 children versus adults and according to the clinical presentation. Compared to HC, GLUT1DS exhibited increase connectivity within the basal ganglia circuitries and between the striatal regions with the frontal cortex and cerebellum. The excessive connectivity was predominant in patients with movement disorders and in children compared to adults, suggesting a correlation with the clinical phenotype and age at fMRI study. Our findings highlight the primary role of the striatum in the GLUT1DS pathophysiology and confirm the dependency of symptoms to the patients' chronological age. Despite the reduced chronic glucose uptake, GLUT1DS exhibit increased connectivity changes in regions highly sensible to glycopenia. Our results may portrait the effect of neuroprotective brain strategy to overcome the chronic poor energy supply during vulnerable ages.

During the course of the 2018 IAAP conference, a criticism of Jung's idea of the archetype as inherited predisposition was raised that involved examining a number of dreams and visions and assessing them through developments in genetics and neuroscience. From this comparison it was argued that archetypes cannot be inherited and could more reasonably be argued to derive from early experiences. In this essay, the author responds by showing how this conclusion is flawed due to being based on reductive errors. An alternative, non-reductive but inherited and biological position on the archetype is defended.Au cours de la Conférence de l’AIPA de 2018, la critique de l’idée de Jung que l’archétype est une prédisposition héréditaire a été émise. Dans cette critique un certain nombre de rêves et de visions ont été étudiés et comparés avec des avancées dans la génétique et les neurosciences. A partir de cette comparaison, il a été proposé que les archétypes ne peuvent pas être hérités et que l’on peut de manière plus raisonnable en situer l’émergence dans les expériences précoces. Dans cette étude, l’auteur répond à cela montrant comment cette conclusion pose problème, du fait qu’elle repose sur des erreurs réductrices. L’auteur propose une alternative concernant l’archétype; celle d’une position non-réductive mais héritée et biologique.Im Verlauf der IAAP-Konferenz 2018 wurde eine Kritik an Jungs Idee des Archetypus als vererbte Veranlagung geäußert, bei der eine Reihe von Träumen und Visionen untersucht und mit Entwicklungen in Genetik und Neurowissenschaften verglichen wurden. Von diesem Vergleich ausgehend wurde argumentiert, daß Archetypen nicht vererbbar seien und vernünftigerweise aus frühen Erfahrungen abgeleitet werden können. In diesem Beitrag antwortet der Autor mit dem Nachweis, daß diese Schlußfolgerung aufgrund von reduktiven Fehlern selbst fehlerhaft ist. Eine alternative, nicht reduktive aber auf Vererbung und die Biologie gegründete Position bezüglich des Archetypus wird verteidigt.Nel corso della conferenza IAAP 2018, è stata sollevata una critica all’idea di Jung dell’archetipo come predisposizione ereditaria che implicava l’esame di una serie di sogni e visioni e il confronto con gli sviluppi della genetica e delle neuroscienze. Da questo confronto è stato affermato che gli archetipi non possono essere ereditati e si potrebbe sostenere a ragione che derivino da esperienze precedenti. In questo saggio, l’autore risponde mostrando come questa conclusione sia errata a causa del suo essere basata su errori di riduzione. Viene quindi difesa una posizione alternativa, non riduttiva ma ereditata e biologica sull’archetipo.Во время IAAP конференции 2018 года идея Юнга об архетипе как врожденной предиспозиции подверглась критике: исследовали серию снов и видений, сопоставляя их с новыми данными генетики и нейронаук. Из этого сопоставления был сделал вывод, что архетипы не могут быть врожденными, скорее они возникают из раннего опыта. В этом очерке автор демонстрирует изъяны такого заключения, так как оно базируется на редукционистских ошибках. Защищается альтернативный, не редукционистский взгляд на архетип как на врожденный биологический феномен.En el transcurso de la Conferencia IAAP 2018, se llevó a cabo una crítica a la idea de arquetipo de Jung como predisposición heredada; la cual incluyó la indagación en una serie de sueños y visiones, comparándolos con desarrollos en los campos de la genética y las neurociencias. A partir de esta comparación, se argumentó que los arquetipos no pueden ser heredados, y que podría argumentarse de manera más razonable que deriven de experiencias tempranas. En el presente ensayo, el autor responde mostrando como esta conclusión es poco consistente por estar basada en errores reductivos. Se defiende una perspectiva de arquetipo biológica y hereditaria, y al mismo tiempo alternativa y no-reductiva.在2018年IAAP年会期间, 有一个批评专门针对荣格把原型作为遗传的先天禀赋观点, 其中对诸多梦、意象进行了检查, 并将之与基因和神经科学方面的发展进行比较。通过这种比较, 声称原型不可能经由遗传获得, 并认为更合理的解释是来自于早期经验。这篇文章中, 作者对此进行了回应, 文章展现这个结论如何基于还原性的错误, 而得出有缺陷的结论。文章守卫的是另一个观点, 即关于原型的非还原的、但是遗传性的和生物性的位置。.

Due to the ongoing digitalisation of workplaces and educational settings, human activity underpinning learning and work is increasingly mediated by technology. The advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) and its integration into everyday technologies influences how people are exposed to information, interact, learn and make decisions. We argue that technology, data and evolving AI applications affect how humans enact and experience life and work, changing the context for learning. Hence, as this paper argues, the current notion of lifelong learning needs a revisit to embrace technology at its foundation. To bring freely chosen goals and ownership in one's learning to the fore, in the context of the coming AI age, we argue for the telos of learning to shift from human capital to human development, with the spotlight on capabilities. The paper draws on the capability approach to inform individuals and organisations of how they can support human development throughout lifelong learning. We then move to provide examples of how technologies underpinning workplace practices can be seen with the focus on capabilities as individuals learn to create value. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include economic, social and environmental dimensions of human development and make explicit commitments to all of life on Earth. Evidence of continuing global biodiversity loss has, at the same time, led to a succession of internationally agreed conservation targets.With multiple targets (even within one policy realm, e.g. the CBD Aichi Targets for biodiversity), it is possible for different indicators to respond in the same direction, in opposite directions or to show no particular relationship. When considering the different sectors of the SDGs, there are many possible relationships among indicators that have been widely discussed, but rarely analysed in detail.Here, we present a comparative cross‐national analysis exploring temporally integrated linkages between human development indicators and wildlife conservation trends.The results suggest that in lower income countries there are negative relationships between measures of human population growth and bird and mammal population abundance trends outside protected areas.The results also suggest a positive relationship between economic growth and wildlife population trends in lower income countries. We stress, however, the need for future research to further explore the relationships between economic growth and natural resource‐based imports.Our results highlight a clear potential for compatibility of the conservation and development agendas and support the need for further integration among sustainable development strategies. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article., A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

This paper provides a systematic review of studies on the effects of human capital interventions on entrepreneurial performance in industrialized countries. We identify 21 experimental and quasi‐experimental studies published before September 2018. These studies examine the effects of business training, formal education, and entrepreneurship education. Their performance outcomes include firm profits, firm size, and entrepreneurial earnings. The main finding across these studies is that these interventions do not have statistically significant effects. Formal education is the only exception, showing positive effects on firm profits and entrepreneurial earnings, yet these effects are small in magnitude. Evidence is inconclusive regarding effect duration. These findings stand in stark contrast to correlational studies, which tend to find large positive correlations between human capital interventions and entrepreneurial performance. We therefore conclude that correlational studies tend to overestimate the benefits of human capital interventions. Moreover, our estimates show that the interventions are associated with moderately low additionality.

Children display an "essentialist" bias in their everyday thinking about social categories. However, the degree and form of this bias varies with age and with the nature of the categories, as well as across cultures. This project investigated the development of the essentialist bias across five social categories (i.e., gender, nationality, religious affiliation, socioeconomic status (rich/poor), and sports-team supporter) in two countries. Children between 5 and 10 years of age in Turkey (Study 1, N = 74) and the United States (Study 2, N = 73), as well as adults in both countries (Study 3, N = 223), participated. Results indicate surprising cross-cultural parallels with respect to both the rank ordering of essentialist thinking across these five categories and increasing differentiation among them over development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Value-based decisions often involve comparisons between benefits and costs that must be retrieved from memory. To investigate the development of value-based decisions, 9- to 10-year olds (N = 30), 11- to 12-year olds (N = 30), and young adults (N = 30) first learned to associate gain and loss magnitudes with symbols. In a subsequent decision task, participants rapidly evaluated objects that consisted of combinations of these symbols. All age groups achieved high decision performance and were sensitive to gain-loss magnitudes, suggesting that required core cognitive abilities are developed early. A cognitive-modeling analysis of performance revealed that children were less efficient in object evaluation (drift rate) and had longer nondecision times than adults. Developmental differences, which emerged particularly for objects of high positive net value, were linked to mnemonic and numerical abilities.

Recent studies have revealed that brain development is marked by morphological synchronization across brain regions. Regions with shared growth trajectories form structural covariance networks (SCNs) that not only map onto functionally identified cognitive systems, but also correlate with a range of cognitive abilities across the lifespan. Despite advances in within-network covariance examinations, few studies have examined lifetime patterns of structural relationships across known SCNs. In the current study, we used a big-data framework and a novel application of covariate-adjusted restricted cubic spline regression to identify volumetric network trajectories and covariance patterns across 13 networks (n = 5,019, ages = 7-90). Our findings revealed that typical development and aging are marked by significant shifts in the degree that networks preferentially coordinate with one another (i.e., modularity). Specifically, childhood showed higher modularity of networks compared to adolescence, reflecting a shift over development from segregation to desegregation of inter-network relationships. The shift from young to middle adulthood was marked by a significant decrease in inter-network modularity and organization, which continued into older adulthood, potentially reflecting changes in brain organizational efficiency with age. This study is the first to characterize brain development and aging in terms of inter-network structural covariance across the lifespan.

Neurochemical profile and brain connectivity are both critical aspects of brain function. However, our knowledge of their interplay across development is currently poor. We combined single‐voxel magnetic resonance spectroscopy and resting functional magnetic resonance imaging in a cross‐sectional sample spanning from childhood to adulthood which was reassessed in ~1.5 years (N = 293). We revealed the developmental trajectories of 20 neurochemicals in two key developmental brain regions (the intraparietal sulcus, IPS, and the middle frontal gyrus, MFG). We found that certain neurochemicals exhibited similar developmental trajectories across the two regions, while other trajectories were region‐specific. Crucially, we mapped the connectivity of the brain regions IPS and MFG to the rest of the brain across development as a function of regional glutamate and GABA concentration. We demonstrated that glutamate concentration within the IPS is modulated by age in explaining IPS connectivity with frontal, temporal and parietal regions. In mature participants, higher glutamate within the IPS was related to more negative connectivity while the opposite pattern was found for younger participants. Our findings offer specific developmental insights on the interplay between the brain's resting activity and the glutamatergic system both of which are crucial for regulating normal functioning and are dysregulated in several clinical conditions., We revealed the developmental trajectories of 20 neurochemicals in two key developmental brain regions (the intraparietal sulcus, IPS, and the middle frontal gyrus, MFG). We demonstrated that glutamate concentration within the IPS is modulated by age in explaining IPS connectivity with frontal, temporal, and parietal regions. Our findings offer specific developmental insights on the interplay between the brain's resting activity and the glutamatergic system both of which are crucial for regulating normal functioning and are dysregulated in several clinical conditions.

Special Issue: The ENIGMA Consortium: the first 10 years.-- Karolinska Schizophrenia Project (KaSP)., Age has a major effect on brain volume. However, the normative studies available are constrained by small sample sizes, restricted age coverage and significant methodological variability. These limitations introduce inconsistencies and may obscure or distort the lifespan trajectories of brain morphometry. In response, we capitalized on the resources of the Enhancing Neuroimaging Genetics through Meta-Analysis (ENIGMA) Consortium to examine age-related trajectories inferred from cross-sectional measures of the ventricles, the basal ganglia (caudate, putamen, pallidum, and nucleus accumbens), the thalamus, hippocampus and amygdala using magnetic resonance imaging data obtained from 18,605 individuals aged 3–90 years. All subcortical structure volumes were at their maximum value early in life. The volume of the basal ganglia showed a monotonic negative association with age thereafter; there was no significant association between age and the volumes of the thalamus, amygdala and the hippocampus (with some degree of decline in thalamus) until the sixth decade of life after which they also showed a steep negative association with age. The lateral ventricles showed continuous enlargement throughout the lifespan. Age was positively associated with inter-individual variability in the hippocampus and amygdala and the lateral ventricles. These results were robust to potential confounders and could be used to examine the functional significance of deviations from typical age-related morphometric patterns., National Institute of Mental Health, Grant/Award Numbers: MH104284, MH116147, R01MH113619, R01 MH090553, R01MH117014, R01MH042191; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm County Council; Southern and Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority; German Centre for Cardiovascular Research; DZHK; Siemens Healthineers; University of Queensland; US National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Grant/Award Number: RO1HD050735; Australian National Health and Medical Research Council; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development; National Institute on Drug Abuse, Grant/Award Numbers: UL1 TR000153, 1 U24 RR025736-01, 1 U24 RR021992; Brain Injury Fund Research Grant Program; Indiana State Department of Health Spinal Cord; Parents Against Childhood Epilepsy; Epilepsy Therapy Project, Fight Against Childhood Epilepsy and Seizures; Epilepsy Foundation; American Epilepsy Society; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation; European Community's Horizon 2020 Programme; Vici Innovation Program; NWO Brain & Cognition Excellence Program; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research; Hersenstichting Nederland; Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development; Geestkracht Programme of the Dutch Health Research Council, Grant/Award Number: 10-000-1001; Universiteit Utrecht; FP7 Ideas: European Research Council; Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek; National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences; National Institutes of Health; National Center for Research Resources; Consortium grant, Grant/Award Number: U54 EB020403; U.S. National Institutes of Health, Grant/Award Numbers: R01 CA101318, P30 AG10133, R01 AG19771; Medical Research Council, Grant/Award Number: G0500092; Fundación Instituto de Investigación Marqués de Valdecilla, Grant/Award Numbers: API07/011, NCT02534363, NCT0235832; Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Grant/Award Numbers: PI14/00918, PI14/00639, PI060507, PI050427, PI020499; the Research Council, Grant/Award Number: 223273; South Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority, Grant/Award Numbers: 2017-112, 2019107; Swedish Research Council; European Community's Seventh Framework Programme, Grant/Award Number: 602450; King's College London; South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust; Biomedical Research Centre; National Institute for Health Research.

The COVID‐19 emergency has had a dramatic impact on market incomes and income support policies. The lack of timely available data constrains the estimation of the scale and direction of recent changes in the income distribution, which in turn constrain policymakers seeking to monitor such developments. We overcome the lack of data by proposing a dynamic calibrated microsimulation approach to generate counterfactual income distributions as a function of more timely external data than is available in dated income surveys. We combine nowcasting methods using publicly available data and a household income generation model to perform the first calibrated simulation based upon actual data aiming to assess the distributional implications of the COVID‐19 crisis in Ireland. Overall, we find that the crisis had an equalizing real‐time effect for both gross and disposable incomes, notwithstanding the significant hardship experienced by many households. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Adolescence is a time period associated with marked brain maturation that coincides with an enhanced risk for onset of psychiatric disorder. White matter tract myelination, a process that continues to unfold throughout adolescence, is reported to be abnormal in several psychiatric disorders. Here, we ask whether psychiatric vulnerability is linked to aberrant developmental myelination trajectories. We assessed a marker of myelin maturation, using magnetisation transfer (MT) imaging, in 10 major white matter tracts. We then investigated its relationship to the expression of a general psychopathology "p-factor" in a longitudinal analysis of 293 healthy participants between the ages of 14 and 24. We observed significant longitudinal MT increase across the full age spectrum in anterior thalamic radiation, hippocampal cingulum, dorsal cingulum and superior longitudinal fasciculus. MT increase in the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus and uncinate fasciculus was pronounced in younger participants but levelled off during the transition into young adulthood. Crucially, longitudinal MT increase in dorsal cingulum and uncinate fasciculus decelerated as a function of mean p-factor scores over the study period. This suggests that an increased expression of psychopathology is closely linked to lower rates of myelin maturation in selective brain tracts over time. Impaired myelin growth in limbic association fibres may serve as a neural marker for emerging mental illness during the course of adolescence and early adulthood.

The gut microbiota is a vast, complex, and fascinating ecosystem of microorganisms that resides in the human gastrointestinal tract. As an integral part of the microbiota-gut-brain axis, it is now being recognized that the microbiota is a modulator of brain and behavior, across species. Intriguingly, periods of change in the microbiota coincide with the development of other body systems and particularly the brain. We hypothesize that these times of parallel development are biologically relevant, corresponding to 'sensitive periods' or 'critical windows' in the development of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Specifically, signals from the microbiota during these periods are hypothesized to be crucial for establishing appropriate communication along the axis throughout the life span. In other words, the microbiota is hypothesized to act like an expected input to calibrate the development of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. The absence or disruption of the microbiota during specific developmental windows would therefore be expected to have a disproportionate effect on specific functions or potentially for regulation of the system as a whole. Evidence for microbial modulation of neurocognitive development and neurodevelopmental risk is discussed in light of this hypothesis, finishing with a focus on the challenges that lay ahead for the future study of the microbiota-gut-brain axis during development.

The present study examined how peer group norms influence children's evaluations of deviant ingroup members. Following the manipulation of competitive or cooperative norms, participants (children, Mage = 8.69; adolescents, Mage = 13.81; adults, Mage = 20.89; n = 263) evaluated deviant ingroup members from their own and the group's perspective. Children rated cooperative deviancy positively and believed their group would do the same. Adolescents and adults believed that their group would negatively evaluate cooperative deviancy when their group supported a competitive allocation strategy. Reasoning varied based on norm and participants’ agreement with deviancy. Understanding an ingroup may not be favorable toward a cooperative deviant in a competitive context is a developmental challenge requiring the coordination of social and moral norms.

Objective Personality is known to predict alcohol consumption, but how alcohol use is related to personality change is less clear, especially at older ages. The present study examined the effects of level of alcohol consumption and history of dependence on change in the Five-Factor Model personality traits in a national cohort of Americans aged over 50. Method Over 10,000 adults who participated in 2006-2008 waves of the Health and Retirement Study reported on personality and alcohol use and were followed over 4 years. Results Latent difference score models indicated decreases in Extraversion to be attenuated for individuals categorized as light-to-moderate drinkers at baseline, whereas decreases in Conscientiousness were accentuated by having experienced alcohol dependence symptoms. Moreover, personality difference scores correlated with changes in the amount of alcohol consumed at follow-up. Conclusions The findings suggest that patterns of alcohol consumption are associated with changes in personality across the second half of the life span.

Extending prior research on belief attributions, we investigated the extent to which 5- to 8-year-olds and adults distinguish their beliefs and other humans' beliefs from God's beliefs. In Study 1, children reported that all agents held the same beliefs, whereas adults drew greater distinctions among agents. For example, adults reported that God was less likely than humans to view behaviors as morally acceptable. Study 2 additionally investigated attributions of beliefs about controversial behaviours (e.g., telling prosocial lies) and belief stability. These data replicated the main results from Study 1 and additionally revealed that adults (but not children) reported that God was less likely than any other agent to think that controversial behaviours were morally acceptable. Furthermore, across ages, participants reported that another person's beliefs were more likely to change than either God's beliefs or their own beliefs. We discuss implications for theories regarding belief attributions and for religious and moral cognition. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject Preschoolers can attribute different beliefs to different humans Children and adults attribute greater cognitive capacities to God than to humans What the present study adds Children attribute the same moral beliefs to God and humans Adults distinguish among different agents' minds when attributing moral beliefs Developmental differences are less pronounced in judgements of belief stability.

West Africa occupies the third position with respect to the burden of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) globally, after Southern and East Africa. About 5 million adults and children are infected with the disease in the subregion, while HIV prevalence in the general population hovers around 2% and 5%. This paper attempts to investigate the impact of HIV/AIDS epidemic on human capital development in 11 West African countries over the period 1990 to 2011. The study used a dynamic panel data modeling approach, using first difference, difference generalized methods of moment, and system generalized methods of moment estimating techniques. Four measures of HIV/AIDS and 2 human capital measures were used in the study. The findings revealed that HIV/AIDS pandemic had negative and significant impact on human capital in West Africa. However, the statistical significance was more pronounced on life expectancy (a measure of human capital), while the negative impact on school enrolment (another human capital measure) was not significant. It is therefore recommended that the spread of HIV/AIDS disease in West Africa should be effectively controlled, while the number of infected persons undergoing antiretroviral therapy in the subregion should be increased to a near 100% coverage.

Little is known about the transition to adulthood in traditional, developing countries such as Saudi Arabia. Previous research in other countries has revealed the importance of considering parents' support during the transition to adulthood. Thus, the purpose of this research was to examine how two generations negotiated the transition to adulthood. We asked the research question, What are the joint projects in which parents and youth plan and act on their plans for the youth's future? We used the action project method, an established qualitative approach, to answer these questions by observing the joint conversations of 14 parent and youth dyads. Our results provided evidence of an overarching higher level goal, or intentional framework, of crafting generational change and continuity within which participants' joint projects were embedded. Joint projects were organized into three groups: (a) negotiating educational and career futures, (b) promoting gender roles and marriage, and (c) shaping independence.

This study used a hands-free eye-tracking visual search (VS) task to examine possible developmental differences in target detection. Thirty-two young adults and 27 youth were asked to detect a fearful face (male or female) among a crowd of either neutral or happy faces. Fearful male faces were detected faster than fearful female faces, but only by young adults and only when displayed among neutral faces. Additionally, young adults had shorter scanpath lengths prior to the target detection. Finally, a strong negative correlation emerged between age and detection speed for a male target in a neutral crowd. Using this age-matched VS task, the study found age differences in the way individuals detect a threat in a social-related contextual environment, pointing to subtle differences in the emotion-attention interplay during the course of development. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Visual search of threat detection is critical for survival, specifically regarding expressive faces. Visual search efficiency is affected by both stimulus-driven and higher goal-directed processes. Stimuli and contextual features affect threat speed detection. What does this study add? A novel task was designed to examine age-related differences in visual search. Specific stimuli gender and contextual features yielded age-related differences in threat detection. The study further demonstrates the subtle developmental differences in attention-emotion interaction.

Background The developmental propensity model of antisocial behavior posits that several dispositional characteristics of children transact with the environment to influence the likelihood of learning antisocial behavior across development. Specifically, greater dispositional negative emotionality, greater daring, and lower prosociality-operationally, the inverse of callousness- and lower cognitive abilities are each predicted to increase risk for developing antisocial behavior. Methods Prospective tests of key predictions derived from the model were conducted in a high-risk sample of 499 twins who were assessed on dispositions at 10-17 years of age and assessed for antisocial personality disorder (APD) symptoms at 22-31 years of age. Predictions were tested separately for parent and youth informants on the dispositions using multiple regressions that adjusted for oversampling, nonresponse, and clustering within twin pairs, controlling demographic factors and time since the first assessment. Results Consistent with predictions, greater numbers of APD symptoms in adulthood were independently predicted over a 10-15 year span by higher youth ratings on negative emotionality and daring and lower youth ratings on prosociality, and by parent ratings of greater negative emotionality and lower prosociality. A measure of working memory did not predict APD symptoms. Conclusions These findings support future research on the role of these dispositions in the development of antisocial behavior.

The conundrums inherent in the study of child and adolescent development are likely never far from the minds of the readers of JCPP. The complexity of development is flagged clearly in this issue. Included papers remind us that the link between associations (here maternal depression and child internalising problems) can change over short time periods. Even when the magnitude of associations stay consistent over time (here between the home environment and depression), there may be different aetiological processes underlying these links. Going forward, we should not lose sight of the significance of small changes in study designs, whether concerning the age range of participants, stipulated reporting periods and data analysis decisions (such as combining data from different age groups). The value of longitudinal data in addressing these questions remains paramount.

In this review of 126 publications, we report that an overwhelming majority of adults born at preterm gestations remain healthy and well. However, a small, but a significant fraction of them remain at higher risk for neurological, personality and behavioural abnormalities, cardio-pulmonary functional limitations, systemic hypertension and metabolic syndrome compared to their term-born counterparts. The magnitude of increased risk differed across organ systems and varied across reports. The risks were proportional to the degree of prematurity at birth and seemed to occur more frequently among preterm infants born in the final two decades of the 20th century and later. These findings have considerable public health and clinical practice relevance. Conclusion Preterm birth needs to be considered a chronic condition, with a slight increase in the risk for long-term morbidities among adults born preterm. Therefore, obtaining a history of gestational age and weight at birth should be a routine part of care for patients of all age groups.

The life course health development (LCHD) model by Halfon et al. conceptualizes health development occurring through person-environment transactions that enable well-being and participation in desired social roles throughout life, areas that have not received adequate attention in healthcare. The aim of this 'perspectives' paper is to apply the six core tenets of the LCHD model and the concept of health development trajectories to individuals with lifelong neurodevelopmental conditions. We share the perspective that modifiable aspects of the environment often restrict health development; we then advocate that children, beginning at a young age, should engage in 'real-world' experiences that prepare them for current and future social roles. LCHD encourages future planning from the outset, continuity of care between pediatric and adult systems, and coordination of services and supports. We believe LCHD can be transformative in enabling healthy living of individuals with neurodevelopmental conditions.

This study reanalyzes data presented by Ritchie, Bates, and Plomin (2015) who used a cross-lagged monozygotic twin differences design to test whether reading ability caused changes in intelligence. The authors used data from a sample of 1,890 monozygotic twin pairs tested on reading ability and intelligence at five occasions between the ages of 7 and 16, regressing twin differences in intelligence on twin differences in prior intelligence and twin differences in prior reading ability. Results from a state-trait model suggest that reported effects of reading ability on later intelligence may be artifacts of previously uncontrolled factors, both environmental in origin and stable during this developmental period, influencing both constructs throughout development. Implications for cognitive developmental theory and methods are discussed.

People across highly diverse cultural contexts use both natural and supernatural explanations to explain questions of fundamental concern such as death, illness, and human origins. The present study examines the development of explanatory coexistence within and across domains of existential concern in individuals in Tanna, Vanuatu. We examined three age groups: 7- to 12-year-old children, 13- to 18-year-old adolescents, and 19- to 70-year-old adults (N = 72). Within the domain of death, biological and spontaneous explanations were most common across all ages. For illness, children showed the highest rates of explanatory coexistence, while adolescents and adults favoured biological explanations. Within the human origins domain, theistic explanations were most common across the age groups. Overall, these data show that coexistence reasoning in these domains is pervasive across cultures, yet at the same time it is deeply contextually specific, reflecting the nuanced differences in local ecologies and cultural beliefs. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Individuals across highly diverse cultural contexts use both natural and supernatural explanations to understand the events that occur in their lives. Context and cultural input play a large role in determining when and how individuals incorporate natural and supernatural explanations. The development of explanatory coexistence has primarily studied explanations for isolated domains. What does this study add? We examined explanatory coexistence in a culture with recent conversion to Christianity and formal education. The current research examines how individuals reason within and across the domains of human origins, illness, and death. Developmental differences associated with explanatory coexistence are examined.

Background:\ud \ud In the general population, the transition from adolescence to adulthood has been identified as a “high‐risk” period for weight gain. There has been no research examining health behaviours over this transition in adults with intellectual disabilities.\ud Methods/design:\ud \ud The feasibility of recruitment, retention and relevant health behaviours were measured in 31 adolescents with mild‐moderate intellectual disabilities. Anthropometric, objective physical activity, dietary and self‐determination measures were collected over a 12‐month transitional period from school to adulthood.\ud Results:\ud \ud Key results suggest weight and BMI increased significantly from month 6 to month 12 (p = 0.044 and p = 0.043). Waist circumference increased significantly from baseline to month 12 (p = 0.049), and from month 6 to month 12 (p = 0.03).\ud \ud Discussion:\ud \ud Recruiting and retaining young adults with intellectual disabilities over a 12‐month health behaviour study is feasible. The data indicate the transition from school to adulthood may be the start of a high‐risk period for weight gain.

Extensive research has evaluated potential negative effects of military deployments on romantic relationships. Comparatively few studies have examined potential positive effects of such deployments. In stressful situations, benefit finding (BF) has been found to be linked with better functioning on both individual and interpersonal levels. This study reports on deployment-related BF in a sample of 67 male service members (SMs) who deployed at least once since 9/11/2001 and their wives. Couples completed measures of marital satisfaction at baseline (an average of 1 year postdeployment) and follow-up 4-6 months later. At follow-up, SMs also provided data on symptoms of posttraumatic stress, and both partners provided reports of deployment-related BF. Multivariate path analysis controlling for SMs' PTSD symptom severity revealed that wives' BF was positively associated with increases in SMs' relationship satisfaction. These findings suggest that wives' responses to deployment may be more influential than SMs' responses to deployment on military couples' relationships. This pattern indicates that support for spouses during deployments is essential; furthermore, such support should include an emphasis on trying to facilitate personal growth in spouses.

BACKGROUND: This study is the first to examine the developmental course of high-intensity drinking (i.e., consuming 10+ drinks in a row) across late adolescence and the transition to adulthood. METHODS: National longitudinal data (N = 3,718) from Monitoring the Future were used to examine trajectories of 10+ high-intensity drinking from age 18 through 25/26 overall and across sociodemographic subgroups; results were compared with similar analysis of 5+ binge drinking trajectories. RESULTS: Results document that 10+ drinkers consume not just a greater quantity of alcohol on a given drinking occasion, but also engage in 5+ drinking more frequently than drinkers who do not report having 10 or more drinks. Developmental patterns for 10+ and 5+ drinking were similar, with peak frequencies reported at age 21/22. Greater peaks in both 10+ and 5+ drinking were documented among men and among college attenders, compared with women and nonattenders, respectively. However, there was a steeper decline in 10+ drinking after age 21/22, indicating that risk for consumption of 10 or more drinks in a row is more clearly focused on the early 20s. Patterns of developmental change in both behaviors were driven largely by college students: No significant age-related change in 10+ drinking was observed among men and women who did not go to college, and no significant age-related change in 5+ drinking was observed among female nonattenders. CONCLUSIONS: Findings underscore the importance of recognizing high-intensity drinkers as a unique high-risk group, and that college attendance is associated with particularly strong peaks in the developmental course of high-intensity drinking.Copyright © 2016 by the Research Society on Alcoholism. Language: en

Increasing evidence suggests that attachment representations take at least two forms: a secure base script and an autobiographical narrative of childhood caregiving experiences. This study presents data from the first 26 years of the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (N = 169), examining the developmental origins of secure base script knowledge in a high-risk sample and testing alternative models of the developmental sequencing of the construction of attachment representations. Results demonstrated that secure base script knowledge was predicted by observations of maternal sensitivity across childhood and adolescence. Furthermore, findings suggest that the construction of a secure base script supports the development of a coherent autobiographical representation of childhood attachment experiences with primary caregivers by early adulthood.

The pediatric hemostatic balance, which is different from that in adults, is an evolving process as the hemostatic system changes and matures throughout the time from fetal to adult life, particularly in the first months of life. The concept of developmental hemostasis was confirmed by several studies evaluating different patients' population in various technical conditions. All these studies demonstrated that, at birth, the plasma levels of most coagulation factors were around half that found in adults, the preterm newborns having lower levels than full-term newborns. Adult values were usually reached between a few months of age and up to above 16 years for specific parameters. If the global trends are consistent across the studies, differences in absolute values could be demonstrated that are likely due to differences in the reagents and/or the instruments used. Accordingly, it is recommended by the Perinatal and Pediatric Haemostasis Subcommittee of the Scientific and Standardization Committee of the ISTH for each laboratory to define the age-dependent reference ranges using its own technical condition. The understanding of that concept of developmental hemostasis, which is now universally accepted, is critical to ensure optimal prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of thrombotic and hemorrhagic diseases in children. Actually, developmental hemostasis could affect the interaction between anticoagulant drugs and the coagulation system and so explain in part the discrepancy between anticoagulation in adults and in children. Finally, developmental hemostasis could probably provide a protective mechanism for neonates and children, contributing to the decreased risk of thrombosis and/or bleeding in these age-groups.

Neural reuse is the process by which neural elements originally developed for one purpose are put to many different subsequent uses. In this brief review I will outline the role of neural reuse in the development of the brain. Special attention will be paid to elucidating and differentiating between two different mechanisms of neurocognitive development: Hebbian plasticity, the importance of which is already well known, and a neural search mechanism that supports the establishment of new functional partnerships in the brain. I describe how these two mechanisms work in concert throughout development to produce the functional architecture we observe in the adult brain; outline the evidence for the importance of neural reuse; offer suggestions for some clinical implications of neural reuse; and point to future research directions.