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I examine how characteristics of investors’ information access tools change investors’ reactions to firm disclosures. I examine my research question in the context of information choice (i.e., allowing investors to choose the order of information and sections to read within a disclosure) and spatial layout (i.e., how information is displayed when viewing the disclosure). Results of an experiment are consistent with information choice improving investors’ judgments if the disclosure is viewed on a computer screen. Conversely, and consistent with cognitive overload, information choice harms investors’ judgments if the disclosure is viewed on a smaller screen, such as that of a mobile device. Follow‐up experiments show that changing the disclosure presentation to reduce the need to scroll is one way to improve investors’ judgments on a smaller (or mobile) screen. My findings caution firms and regulators about expanding information choice within disclosures without considering the screen size used to access the disclosure.

Survey participation by means of mobile devices is quickly spreading in many countries. This new kind of participation stimulated a lot of methodological interest. Indeed, mobile devices (and smartphones, mostly) have different characteristics in comparison to PCs, in particular a higher portability and smaller screens. Previous research has been focused mainly on experiments comparing PC and mobile survey participation. Only few studies specifically took into consideration the screen size of the mobile devices as a factor that can affect the quality of web surveys data. However, the size of the screens was always considered a key aspect in the framework of web surveys. This paper aims at evaluating how the screen size of the mobile devices can affect the results and the data quality in web surveys. Our analysis, first, takes into account two wide categories: PCs (i.e., “big screen”) and smartphones (i.e., “small screens”). Then, within the data collected on smartphones, we evaluate the effect of the device size on several indicators such as answers consistency across waves, failures to the Instructional Manipulation Check (IMC) question, and completion times. We use data from an experiment implemented in 2015 by means of a two-wave survey proposed to more than 1,000 panelists of the online access panel Netquest, in Spain. In the two waves we proposed the same questionnaire, but respondents were assigned randomly to different devices (PC or smartphone). We expect the size of the screen to affect the quality and the comparability of the collected data. When the screens are really small, the answer inconsistencies, failure of the IMC and completion times are expected to be higher, mainly when the survey is not optimized for mobile participation. Overall, our findings will provide a more precise idea about the comparability and the relative quality of data collected by means of web surveys depending on the size of the device.

BACKGROUND Preoperative anxiety affects up to 65% of children who undergo anesthesia induction and often results in uncooperative behavior. Electronic devices have been used to distract children to reduce anxiety and create a more enjoyable preoperative experience. Few studies have compared the effects of different video delivery systems on preoperative anxiety. AIMS The primary aim was to determine if a large projection-based video screen mounted to a patient's bed decreased anxiety when compared to a tablet during mask induction of anesthesia in children from 4-10 years of age. METHODS We performed a prospective, randomized trial to determine differences in our primary outcome, preoperative anxiety, between the large Bedside Entertainment and Relaxation Theater (BERT) and a smaller tablet screen. Secondary outcomes included (a) induction compliance; (b) child fear; (c) frequency of emergence delirium; and (d) satisfaction. RESULTS In examining the primary outcome for 52 patients, there was a main effect for time on mYPAS scores, f(2, 51) = 13.18, P

The viewing-zone scanning holographic display, which can enlarge both screen size and viewing zone, is modified to enable color image generation by using the time-multiplexing technique; R, G, and B lasers sequentially illuminate a single microelectromechanical systems spatial light modulator with a high frame rate. The viewing-zone scanning system enlarges screen size by using a magnifying imaging system and generates a large number of reduced viewing zones that are aligned in the horizontal direction by a horizontal scanner to enlarge the viewing zone. The interval of the reduced viewing zones is set to be one-third of the width of the reduced viewing zones or less so that three sets of reduced viewing zones are generated corresponding to the three colors. Color image generation was demonstrated for a screen size of 2.0 in. and a viewing zone angle of 40.0°.

Premise of the study The ability to attract pollinators is crucial to plants that rely on insects for pollination. We contrasted the roles of floral display size and flower color in attracting three bee species and determined the relationships between plant attractiveness (number of pollinator visits) and seed set for each bee species. Methods We recorded pollinator visits to plants, measured plant traits, and quantified plant reproductive success. A zero-inflated Poisson regression model indicated plant traits associated with pollinator attraction. It identified traits that increased the number of bee visits and traits that increased the probability of a plant not receiving any visits. Different components of floral display size were examined and two models of flower color contrasted. Relationships between plant attractiveness and seed set were determined using regression analyses. Key results Plants with more racemes received more bee visits from all three bee species. Plants with few racemes were more likely not to receive any bee visits. The role of flower color varied with bee species and was influenced by the choice of the flower color model. Increasing bee visits increased seed set for all three bee species, with the steepest slope for leafcutting bees, followed by bumble bees, and finally honey bees. Conclusions Floral display size influenced pollinator attraction more consistently than flower color. The same plant traits affected the probability of not being visited and the number of pollinator visits received. The impact of plant attractiveness on female reproductive success varied, together with pollinator effectiveness, by pollinator species.

As technology continues to evolve, organizations seek to use personal electronics like smartphones for selection and assessment. While this promises to increase access to a more diverse applicant pool, research is needed to examine whether commonly used assessments function similarly on these devices as on a conventional computer. Contrary to past research, we did not find meaningful differences in general mental ability (GMA) test scores between device groups. We also observed few differences in item functioning between devices. Screen size had a positive, but marginal effect on test scores. These results are optimistic for the use of mobile devices in GMA testing, but additional research is needed to examine the functioning of alternative GMA tests administered on mobile devices.

Identifying resource preference is considered essential for developing targeted conservation plans but, for many species, questions remain about the best way to estimate preference. Resource preferences for bees are particularly difficult to determine as the resources they collect, nectar and pollen, are challenging to estimate availability and collection. Resources are traditionally measured at the flower or inflorescence level, but these measures of availability do not correspond to the resources actually used by bees. Additionally, it is unclear as to whether common models including availability are appropriate for bees which may target resources regardless of available quantities. Here we first compare two common hypotheses of resource use – the ‘random use hypothesis’ and the ‘linear preferences hypothesis’ – using three different measures of availability (pollen, flower and inflorescence) – to determine if one measure of availability was better for understanding bee pollen use. Next, the superior model using availability was compared to a novel model of bee pollen use the ‘target use hypothesis’. This model assumes that bees target some resources regardless of how much of each resource is available (but assuming resources are present at a site), and thus models preference without availability data. Of the models including availability, the linear preference model using inflorescence availability best explained the pollen use data. This suggests that bumblebee pollen use is non-random and that cues to identify and locate resources (i.e. display size and quantity) may be more important than the quantity of the resource available (i.e. pollen availability). Additionally, in most cases the target use model explained the data equal to or better than the other models suggesting bee resource use may be better modeled without measured availability data compared to linear models. These results could be important for expanding resource use analysis of bees that are difficult to quantify availability.

The use of multiple coordinated views (MCV) in data visualization provides analytic power because it allows a person to explore data under a variety of different perspectives. Since this design pattern utilizes multiple visualizations and requires coordinated interactions across the views, a clever use of screen space is vital and many synchronized interface operations must be provided. Bringing this design pattern to tablet computers is challenging due to their small display size and the absence of keyboard and mouse input. In this article, we explain important design considerations for MCV visualization on tablets and describe a prototype MCV visualization system we have built for the iPad. The design is based on the principles of maximizing screen space for data presentation, promoting consistent interactions across visualizations, and minimizing occlusion from a person's hands.

We have successfully developed 27inch 8K4K Liquid Crystal display by utilizing BCE IGZO (Back Channel Etched InGaZnO) transistor. Its pixel density is 326ppi like smartphone, but the screen size is 27inch, middle class desktop monitor size. And its LCD panel supports 120Hz driving. BCE IGZO-TFT realizes low resistance wiring material because of its low process temperature. Above reason, we can enlarge the screen size to desktop monitor class, remaining smartphone class fine resolution. Also this system contains HDR (High Dynamic Range) driving system, and wide color gamut, by IGZO transistor and Negative LC FFS pixel structure.

We clarified the relationship between the display size of MRI images and observer performance using a digital contrast‐detail (d‐CD) phantom. The d‐CD phantom was developed using Microsoft Visual Basic 2010 Express. It had a 512×512 matrix in size and a total of 100 holes, whose diameter increased stepwise from 4 to 40 pixels with a 4‐pixel interval in the vertical direction; the contrast varied stepwise in the horizontal direction. The digital driving level (DDL) of the background, the width of the DDL, and the contrast were adjustable. These parameters were determined on the basis of the actual T1‐weighted magnetic resonance (MR) images of the brain. In this study, the DDL, width, and contrast were set to 85, 20, and 1, respectively. The observer performance study was performed for three different display sizes (30 cm×30 cm as the enlarged size, 16 cm×16 cm as the original size, and 10 cm×10 cm as the reduced size) using a 2‐megapixel color liquid crystal display monitor, and it was analyzed using Friedman and Wilcoxon statistical tests. The observer performances for the original display (p

This study investigated the aesthetic judgment of large-size curved displays and found out the most preferred radius of them. For the survey, 1:1 scale curved display mock-ups were presented to subjects, and the displays were made of acrylic frame with various sizes and curvatures. The subjects were asked to assess their preference for the displays in both aesthetic appeal and visual comfort at a distance of 2.5 m. The survey results showed that the most preferred radius of curvature varies depending on the display size, and it increases as the display size becomes larger. For 55-in. displays, the most preferred radius of curvature was found as 2000 mm across the contents attached on the displays. With regard to the 65- and 75-in. displays, the subjects' preference was increased to 3000 mm that lightly varied depending on the presented contents.

We studied the stereoscopic effect obtained from a two-dimensional image without using binocular parallax, which we call “natural3D” (n3D). Unlike a parallax-based three-dimensional (3D) display system, n3D causes less tiredness and is free from a decrease of the resolution by half because of image division and viewing position dependence. To make the display with these effects comfortable to use, we conducted statistical tests with sensory evaluation experiments and a quantitative evaluation based on physiological responses. These examinations revealed that the n3D effect can be effectively obtained by using, for example, the characteristics of an organic light-emitting diode display, such as high contrast and easy bendability. This study discusses optimal display curvatures for displays of different sizes that enhance n3D and reduce tiredness, which are revealed through statistical tests. In addition, we performed an experiment with a frame called an n3D window (n3Dw) that is placed before the display such that a subject views the display through the opening of the frame. We found that the combination of a curve and the n3Dw causes n3D more effectively.

Compared to the early versions of smart phones, recent mobile devices have bigger screens that can present more web search results. Several previous studies have reported differences in user interaction between conventional desktop computer and mobile device-based web searches, so it is imperative to consider the differences in user behavior for web search engine interface design on mobile devices. However, it is still unknown how the diversification of screen sizes on hand-held devices affects how users search. In this article, we investigate search performance and behavior on three different small screen sizes: early smart phones, recent smart phones, and phablets. We found no significant difference with respect to the efficiency of carrying out tasks, however participants exhibited different search behaviors: less eye movement within top links on the larger screen, fast reading with some hesitation before choosing a link on the medium, and frequent use of scrolling on the small screen. This result suggests that the presentation of web search results for each screen needs to take into account differences in search behavior. We suggest several ideas for presentation design for each screen size.

The high interest in the display industry to produce curved or flexible displays for mobile, wearable, and television markets has raised concerns on the performance of displays in their bent state. Flexible display technologies have been developed for this purpose, but their optical characteristics have not been previously reported at various degrees of curvature. The measurement of flexible displays is possible only with special measurement arrangements using common display characterization devices. A conoscope with a working distance of 15 mm was used to demonstrate the curvature dependence of luminance, viewing angle, and color coordinates of the white point of a flexible active-matrix organic light-emitting display. The results show that the effect of curvature on the optical characteristics of the display is most evident at the smallest measured bending radii of +/−50 mm and that the effects are most visible when viewing the bent ends of the display, from the central normal vantage point, with uniform curvature along the display.

This study investigated the benefits of a curved display compared with a flat display, and discovered the optimal radius of curvature for large-size curved television based on the subjective judgment on aesthetics and usability. The experimental results showed that the optimal radius of curvature varies depending on the display size and it increases as the size becomes larger. The curvature with a radius equal to 2000 mm is optimal for a 55-inch television, and the curvature with a radius range between 2000 mm to 3000 mm is appropriate for 65-inch and 75-inch televisions.

Seam carving is a content-aware multimedia retargeting technique to adaptively resize multimedia data for different display sizes. However, it can also be used to remove objects from digital object or video for malicious purposes. In this paper, a forensics hash-based tampering detection and localization approach is proposed for seam carving-based video retargeting. It extracts the invariant Speeded-up Robust Feature points from every spatiotemporal image to represent the matching surface, and the relative position change of the neighboring matching surface is used to build the forensic hash in a compact and scalable way. Experimental results show that the proposed forensics approach can effectively estimate the exact amount and rough locations of deleted seam carving surfaces. It achieves desirable detection performance even when there are frames deleted. If the hash length is reasonably increased, it can estimate the rough location and exact amount of deleted frames. Moreover, the built forensics hash is of good robustness, scalability, and compactness. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A new modular multi-projection multi-user multiview autostereoscopic display structure based on microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) laser projectors is presented. The system contains an array of MEMS laser projectors, a vertical diffuser, and the driving electronics. Each projector provides a slit of the whole image observed through the vertical diffuser. The structure does not require super position of the content among the projectors. Unlike similar type of displays, the size of the projection display hardware decreased dramatically. The structure has the capability to provide horizontal expansion in the screen size, and in number of different perspectives shown. Mentioned capabilities can be enhanced by using more projectors, by increasing the distance between projectors and the screen, and by changing the diffusion angle of the vertical diffuser in the minor axis. The inhouse built prototype with 18 projectors displays an image with a resolution of 234times848, and 36 different perspectives. The size of the image at the screen is 16 cm x 72 cm

Passive matrix organic light emitting display is restricted to its passive driving method, so it is hard to make the screen size and resolution larger because the brightness is reduced with the row numbers and it needs a driver Integrated Circuit (IC) with high current supply. In order to make high resolution and large size Organic Light Emitting Display (OLED), companies invest much money to produce Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Display (AMOLED). But compared with AMOLED, Passive Matrix Organic Light Emitting Display (PMOLED) has simple fabrication process, which does not need very complex Thin Film Transistor (TFT) backplane and also has less material cost. In this paper, we research the ordinary design of PMOLED panel, and finally, we found a novel design to diminish the dead space of PMOLED on the left and right sides. With that, we can stitch pairs of PMOLED unit together to make the PMOLED panel larger and have higher resolution. We also developed the manufacture process for this new type of PMOLED panel. Using our novel method, we finally made a 3.5 inch PMOLED panel with a resolution of 160 (RGB) × 240 and developed the driving method for this sample using two commercialized PMOLED driver chip and Microprogrammed Control Unit (MCU) chip. So with the novel method, we can make many PMOLED panel stitched together to make larger PMOLED with higher resolution.

This paper discusses an In-cell capacitive touch sensor and its integration in an LTPS TFT-LCD with 7-inch screen size and WSVGA resolution. The operation of the newly developed sensor is based on capacitive coupling between user's finger and the detection electrode on the TFT substrate, and is purely capacitive. The sensors and the sensor driver circuits have been integrated in the TFT substrate of the prototype TFT-LCD using LTPS technology. The prototype having 256x150 sensors shows advantages such as smooth operation with no touch force, high position accuracy, multi-touch (10 or more), a thin and light LCD module, high display quality, and thus is suitable for various applications such as cell-phones, smart-phones, mobile-PCs, and automotive-use displays.

This study explored the effect of TV size, light source, and ambient illumination on the preferred viewing distance of portable liquid-crystal-display televisions. Results showed that the mean preferred viewing distance was 1389 mm. TV size had significant effects on preferred viewing distance. The larger the screen size, the greater the preferred viewing distance, at around 6.7–14.7 times the width of the screen (W). Light sources revealed no significant effect on preferred viewing distance. The effect of ambient illumination on preferred viewing distance was significant. The higher the ambient illumination was, the longer the preferred viewing distance.

We have successfully developed a LCD for Super Hi-Vision. This LCD has a panel of 7680 by 4320 pixels, which is 16 times as many as that of conventional Full-HD, and it features a diagonal screen size of 85 inches. A single pixel measures 0.245 mm (103PPI). The brightness has been achieved 300 cd/m2 or higher by using low-load interconnection and UV2A technologies. Additionally, the LC charging time has been extended by quad area and double source line structures. Furthermore, we realized the real-time display of huge image data with a transmission rate of 72Gbps by high-definition mounting and high-speed video processing technologies.

This paper summarizes the results of an investigation on the viewing angle requirements for large flat-panel television displays as well as on screen tilting as a means of reducing glare in accordance with the “Ergonomic Design Guidelines for Flat Panel Display Televisions” established by a special committee of the Japan Ergonomics Society. First, taking into account screen size, we investigated viewing angle requirements through a field survey of household television viewing conditions. We then evaluated the influence of the size, mounting height, and tilt of the screen on the occurrence of glare. Next, we conducted laboratory experiments to investigate the allowable tilt angle for ensuring acceptable viewing comfort and the optimum screen tilt angle for each mounting height. The results can be used as guidelines for adjusting viewing conditions as well as for ergonomic design of flat-panel television displays.

We have developed a multi-view 2D/3D Display with the HxDP (Horizontally x times-Density Pixels) arrangement. The multi-view display features the same display resolution in 2D and 3D modes and simultaneously displays 2D and 3D images on the same screen. It has excellent optical characteristics: a low 3D crosstalk of less than 2%, a large QSVS (Qualified Stereoscopic Viewing Space), and a smooth motion parallax.

Purpose To survey the viewing experience (e.g. hours watched, difficulty) and viewing metrics (e.g. distance viewed, display size) for television (TV), computers and portable visual display devices for normally-sighted (NS) and visually impaired participants. This information may guide visual rehabilitation.

Increasingly, users are performing more sophisticated types of tasks, like web browsing and particularly information search, across computing platforms including desktops/laptops, tablets, and smartphones. While much research has been done to improve efficiency for each of these devices in the area of information search, no investigations have taken a pragmatic approach to determining the real efficiency costs across current state of the art devices and typical browser-based searching paradigms. We examine comparative task execution times for within document searching tasks under three different conditions: varying screen sizes (desktop, tablet, smartphone), varying interaction devices (mouse & keyboard and touchscreen) and varying interaction techniques (scrolling and pagination). In addition, we examine components of the task: scanning, skimming and raiding and combine reading rates and KLM measures to try to predict task execution time.

Passive Matrix Organic Diode is restricted to it's passive driving method, so the screen size and resolution is hard to be larger because of the brightness reduce with the row numbers. But PMOLED has simple fabrication process and less material cost compared to TFT-LCD and AMOLED panel. In this paper we deeply research the design of PMOLED panel, and finally we found a creative method to make the PMOLED panel larger and with higher resolution. Use our creative met hod we finally made a 3.5 inch PMOLED panel without bezel on right and left side, and so it can be scaled to make larger PMOLED with higher resolution.

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of three different screen sizes (small, medium and large) and two types of multimedia instruction (text only and text with pictorial annotation) on vocabulary learning. One hundred thirty-five Korean middle school students learning English as a foreign language were randomly distributed into six groups and were given a pretest, a self-study multimedia instruction, a posttest and a retention test online. The pretest, posttest and retention test were identical and included 30 vocabulary questions. Results show that the large screen multimedia instruction helped the students to learn English vocabulary more effectively than the small screen instruction as demonstrated on both the posttest and retention test. However, there was little difference in vocabulary learning between the text-only and text-with-pictorial annotation instructions. Although visual perception can be influenced by each learner's expectations and knowledge, using a smaller screen for instruction causes more challenges for learners to perceive and comprehend vocabulary learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work have shown that it is possible to register multiple projectors on non-planar surfaces using a single uncalibrated camera instead of a calibrated stereo pair when dealing with a special class of non-planar surfaces, vertically extruded surfaces. However, this requires the camera view to contain the entire display surface. This is often an impossible scenario for large displays, especially common in visualization, edutainment, training and simulation applications. In this paper we present a new method that can achieve an accurate geometric registration even when the field-of-view of the uncalibrated camera can cover only a part of the vertically extruded display at a time. We pan and tilt the camera from a single point and employ a multi-view approach to register the projectors on the display. This allows the method to scale easily both in terms of camera resolution and display size. To the best of our knowledge, our method is the first to achieve a scalable multi-view geometric registration of large vertically extruded displays with a single uncalibrated camera. This method can also handle a different situation of having multiple similarly oriented cameras in different locations, if the camera focal length is known.

Designers take note! PCs and traditional Internet sites are becoming an ever-smaller part of the digital communications picture. Growing—especially in non-US markets—are all manner of alternative online appliances. In this environment—where screen size, customer expectations, and time constraints are very different from that found in PC formats—Michael Bayler and David Stoughton present an array of design and brand-building opportunities.

Introduction Since the introduction of wearable head-up displays, there has been much interest in the surgical community adapting this technology into routine surgical practice. Methods We used the keywords augmented reality OR wearable device OR head-up display AND surgery using PubMed, EBSCO, IEEE and SCOPUS databases. After exclusions, 74 published articles that evaluated the utility of wearable head-up displays in surgical settings were included in our review. Results Across all studies, the most common use of head-up displays was in cases of live streaming from surgical microscopes, navigation, monitoring of vital signs, and display of preoperative images. The most commonly used head-up display was Google Glass. Head-up displays enhanced surgeons' operating experience; common disadvantages include limited battery life, display size and discomfort. Conclusions Due to ergonomic issues with dual-screen devices, augmented reality devices with the capacity to overlay images onto the surgical field will be key features of next-generation surgical head-up displays.

In some poeciliid fishes, variation in male size is accompanied by differences in mating behavior. Large males are preferred by females and perform courtship displays followed by copulatory thrusts, whereas small males perform copulatory thrusts with few or no displays. This phenomenon has been described in only a few genera and little is known about mating behavior in other poeciliids. Although Phallichthys quadripunctatus males display size dimorphism that has a genetic component, mating behavior of this species has not been documented. We conducted experiments using socially experienced and socially naive males to characterize the mating behavior of this species and to evaluate potential size-dependent differences in behavior. Males were tested with postpartum (presumably receptive) and midcycle (presumably unreceptive) females in different social environments. Whereas neither size class of P. quadripunctatus males performed courtship displays or altered behavior based on female receptivity, large males performed several reproductive behaviors more frequently than small males. This trend was repeatable and occurred in all social environments examined. Some males also attempted to mate with other males, with small males showing a greater tendency to perform this behavior than large males. The manner in which differences in reproductive activity translate into differences in reproductive success must be examined before inferring sexual selection favoring large males in P. quadripunctatus.

Summary 1Plants that display many open flowers usually receive higher pollinator visitation rates, but it is unclear whether pollinators select plants to visit based on the size of floral display (apparent size) or the value of the floral rewards (reward size). To examine how pollinators respond to apparent size and reward size, we observed bumble bees foraging among arrays of artificial plants. 2We constructed two kinds of artificial flower: (i) rewarding flowers that produced nectar constantly; and (ii) unrewarding flowers that produced only water. Thus, we could construct plants that varied both in numbers of flowers (apparent size) and in numbers of rewarding flowers (reward size). 3At the beginning of the experiments, bees made more visits to the plants with the most flowers, irrespective of the rewards they contained. However, after several hours of foraging, bees returned selectively to plants with the greater number of rewarding flowers, irrespective of the number of flowers the plant presented. After we replaced rewarding plants with non-rewarding plants, bees continued visiting plants at formerly-profitable locations for a while. 4Our results demonstrate that bees initially showed preferences for plants with larger floral displays, but eventually bees were able to discriminate between rewarding and less-rewarding plants of equal display size by associating a plant's location with its reward size. Our results suggest that plants with many flowers can achieve higher visitation rates from pollinators in two ways: (i) by attracting inexperienced pollinators with large displays; and (ii) by encouraging experienced pollinators to return with the promise of greater rewards.

This paper describes our recent experimental evaluation of Information-Rich Virtual Environment (IRVE) interfaces. To explore the depth cue/visibility tradeoff between annotation schemes, we design and evaluate two information layout techniques to support search and comparison tasks. The techniques provide different depth and association cues between objects and their labels: labels were displayed either in the virtual world relative to their referent (Object Space) or on an image plane workspace (Viewport Space). The Software Field of View (SFOV) was controlled to 60° or 100° of vertical angle and two groups were tested: those running on a single monitor and those on a tiled nine-panel display. Users were timed, tracked for correctness, and gave ratings for both difficulty and satisfaction on each task. Significant advantages were found for the Viewport interface, and for high SFOV. The interactions between these variables suggest special design considerations to effectively support search and comparison performance across monitor configurations and projection distortions. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Summary • Pollinator-mediated selection has been hypothesized as one cause of size dimorphism between female and male flowers. Flower number, ignored in studies of floral dimorphism, may interact with flower size to affect pollinator selectivity. • In the present study, we explored pollinator response, and estimated pollen receipt and removal, in experimental populations of monoecious Sagittaria trifolia, in which plants were manipulated to display three, six, nine or 12 female or male flowers per plant. In this species, female flowers are smaller but have a more compressed flowering period than males, creating larger female floral displays. • Overall, pollinators preferred to visit male rather than female displays of the same size. Both first visit per foraging bout and visitation rates to female displays increased with display size. However, large male displays did not show increased attractiveness to pollinators. A predicted relationship that pollen removal, rather than pollen receipt, is limited by pollinator visitation was confirmed in the experimental populations. • The results suggest that the lack of selection on large male displays may affect the evolution of floral dimorphism in this species.

Summary 1 Pollinator visitation patterns in relation to variation in floral display size may be modified both quantitatively and qualitatively by local plant density. In this study four measures of pollinator response by Bombus spp. (plant visitation rate, bout length, proportion of flowers visited, flower visitation rate) were investigated under two or three different plant densities in two consecutive years in a natural population of Digitalis purpurea L. 2 Plant visitation rate increased with floral display size in both years, and was higher in dense patches compared with sparse ones in 1999. Bout lengths increased with display size in 1999, and bouts were longer in sparse patches. However, the actual rate of increase with display size was independent of plant density for both response measures. 3 The proportion of flowers visited decreased with floral display size in both years, and in 1999 the decline was faster in high-density patches. As a result, the proportion visited was higher in dense patches for the smallest display sizes, and higher in sparse patches for larger display sizes. 4 Flower visitation rate decreased with floral display size in both years. This is inconsistent with the idea that bees achieve an ideal free distribution across flowers. There was no significant effect of plant density. 5 These results demonstrate that local plant density variation may modify the functional relationship between floral display size and pollinator visitation rate, and potentially influence plant mating patterns.

Summary 1. Pollinators typically visit more flowers on plants with larger floral displays, which should present such attractive plants with significant pollen transport losses. 2. Many-flowered plants with hermaphrodite flowers might reduce the costs of attractiveness by encouraging fewer sequential flower visits by pollinators. One mechanism that accomplishes this is to produce variable nectar rewards, which will cause risk-averse foragers to leave the plant after visiting fewer flowers. 3. We test the prediction that within-plant variability in nectar production rate increases with the relative number of open flowers on a plant. A field survey of nine herbaceous angiosperm species native to Alberta, Canada revealed a significant positive correlation between nectar variability (measured as standard deviation) and the size of the floral display within species. This relationship existed over and above the null expectation of a positive correlation between mean and SD. 4. Our results suggest that multiflowered plants might maximize the male fitness returns associated with a plant’s attraction status (determined by relative display size), by taking advantage of risk-averse foraging by their pollinators.

We propose a fast approach for photo-realistic rendering of trees under various kinds of daylight, which is particularlyuseful for the environmental assessment of landscapes. In our approach the 3D tree models are transformedto a quasi-3D tree database registering geometrical and shading information of tree surfaces, i.e. their normalvectors, relative depth, and shadowing of direct sunlight and skylight, by using a combination of 2D buffers.Thus the rendering speed of quasi-3D trees depends on their display sizes only, regardless of the complexity oftheir original 3D tree models. By utilizing a two-step shadowing algorithm, our proposed method can create highquality forest scenes illuminated by both sunlight and skylight at a low cost. It can generate both umbrae andpenumbrae on a tree cast by other trees and any other objects such as buildings or clouds. Transparency, specularreflection and inter-reflection of leaves, which influence the delicate shading effects of trees, can also be simulatedwith verisimilitude. Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): I.3.7 [Computer Graphics]: Three dimensional Graphics and Realism

Summary 1. Patterns of pollinator responses to variation in floral display size have significance for pollen flow among plants. Here we test a theoretical model for explaining such patterns by simultaneously assessing bumble bee behaviour and nectar availability in two native stands of Cirsium purpuratum with different spatial densities. 2. A bumble bee ( Bombus diversus ) foraging on a plant remembered and avoided only one or two flower heads that it had probed before, so that the flower-head revisitation rate increased as it stayed longer on a plant. Moreover, the revisitation rate increased less rapidly on larger displays. 3. The number of heads probed per plant increased less than proportionally with display size, and this increase was smaller at higher plant density. This pattern is consistent with our expectation that a bee leaves a plant when the cost of flower-head revisitation exceeds that of interplant movement. However, bees left plants slightly earlier than predicted. 4. As predicted, the visitation rate of bees per plant showed a decelerated increase with floral display size, and this increase was greater at higher plant density. 5. As a result of these complementary changes in the number of heads probed per plant and visitation rate per plant across plant densities, nectar rewards per head were equalized among displays (an ideal free distribution was achieved).

The study examined the cognitive processes involved in switching from familiar to novel points of observation. Participants studied a single view of a small (table-top model) or large (laboratory) spatial display that was presented from a horizontal or vertical viewing angle. In a reaction-time task, spatial judgments were then made from imagined perspectives that were either the original perspective or a parallel, novel perspective. Familiar views resulted in decreased response latencies relative to novel views only for those participants who had been presented with a horizontal viewing angle, an effect that was independent of display size. The results indicate that viewing angle is a variable influencing people's ability to switch imagined perspectives.

In this paper we will introduce a new method for making optical multi-touch devices. The method is called Planar Scatter Detection and has been prototyped in a 32″ format. The technology is viable for all display sizes ranging from a few inches to over 100″. The advantages with this technology are low cost and good size scalability while maintaining multi-touch performance.

Summary 1 We analysed the longevity of individual flowers with respect to the effects of the floral display size of a plant (number of flowers open at one time) and spatial arrangement of flowers in Iris gracilipes (A. Gray). We found that the actual floral longevity of this species (about 2 days) was much shorter than that predicted by the model of Schoen and Ashman (about 7–10 days). 2 A large display size and an overlap of flowering periods within a shoot facilitated successive pollinator probes within a plant, though the frequency of pollinator visits per flower was independent of display size. Consequently, the cost of geitonogamous selfing increased with an increase in display size and an overlap of flowering periods within a shoot. The short floral longevity of this species would be effective in such situations because shorter floral longevity leads to a smaller display size and a smaller overlap of flowering periods within a shoot. 3 A small display size and small overlap of flowering periods within a shoot could also be realized by the strategy that staggers the flowering period of each flower without floral longevity being shortened (extended blooming). However, a mutant plant with an extended blooming schedule would be unlikely to invade the population because of the stabilizing selection pressure on the flowering date. This may be why such a short floral longevity, rather than extended blooming, has evolved in this species.

Differences in floral display size between male and female plants in dioecious species are often considered to be the result of competition within and between male and female plants to attract insects, although this hypothesis is rarely tested. In a field study of the alpine dioecious herb Aciphylla glacialis, insect visitation rates were found to increase with increasing floral display, as predicted. Dipterans were the most common visitors to male and female inflorescences, both in terms of individuals visits (2083 out of 2581 total visits by insects), and species number (20 morphospecies, potentially 22 species). Larger male inflorescences attracted 1.7 times as many insects in total, and 3.1 times more visits by the most common flower visitor, Musca vetustissima than did female inflorescences, but equal number of visits by the next most common flying visitors, Poecilohetaerus aquilius and Tephritis poenia. There was no difference in the amount of time M. vetustissima individuals spent on male and female inflorescences, even though male inflorescences have more flowers. Larger displays (four and eight inflorescences) of either sex attracted more visits than smaller ones (one inflorescence), although the rate of increase in visitation rate with increasing floral display declined. The response of insects to increasing floral display does not support the predicted escalating or proportionate increasing rate of visitation of some models for the evolution of dimorphism in floral displays in dioecious plants.

The evolution of floral display is thought to be constrained by trade-offs between the size and number of flowers and inflorescences. We grew in the glasshouse 60 maternal families from each of two Brazilian populations of the annual herb, Eichhornia paniculata. We measured flower size, daily flower number, and total flower number per inflorescence, and two indices of module size, leaf area and age at flowering. We also assessed the size and number of inflorescences produced over 6 weeks. All floral traits exhibited significant heritable variation, some of which was due to genetic variation in module size. Genetic (maternal family) correlations between daily and total flower number did not differ from 1.0, indicating that display size (daily flower number) cannot evolve independently from total flower number per inflorescence. Genetic correlations between flower size and daily flower number ranged from negative to positive (r=–0.78 to +0.84), depending on population and inflorescence. Positive correlations occurred when variation in investment per inflorescence was high so that some families produced both larger and more flowers. These correlations became zero when we controlled for variation in module size. Families that flowered later produced fewer, larger inflorescences (r=–0.33, –0.85). These data support theoretical predictions regarding the combined effects of variation in resource acquisition and allocation on traits involved in trade-offs, and they emphasize the hierarchical organization of floral displays. Our results imply that patterns of resource allocation among inflorescences influence evolutionary changes in flower size and number per inflorescence.

In the context of picture viewing, consistent and specific relationships have been found between two emotion dimensions (valence and arousal) and self-report, physiological and overt behavioral responses. Relationships between stimulus content and the emotion-response profile can also be modulated by the formal properties of stimulus presentation such as screen size. The present experiment explored the impact of another presentation attribute, stimulus motion, on the perceived quality of the induced emotion and on its associated physiological response pattern. Using a within-subject design, moving and still versions of emotion-eliciting stimuli were shown to 35 subjects while facial muscle, heart rate, skin conductance, and emotion self-reports were monitored. The impact of motion was dramatic. Self-report and physiological data suggested strongly that motion increased arousal, had little impact on valence, and captured and sustained the subject's attention to the image.

We examined the functional relationships between floral display and two types of bumble bee response, the visitation rate per plant and the number of flowers visited on a plant, in an artificially arranged field population of Cirsium purpuratum. To reduce the variance in data, we collected data for each day separately and adopted a Latin square design in selecting the focal plants within a day. We then tested several types of regressions to each set of data to find the best-fitting line accounting for the observed relationship between pollinator response and display size. We found that the visitation rate of bumble bees per plant was a decelerating function of floral display, and that the number of flowering heads visited on a plant increased linearly with display size. Predicted from the above two functions, the visitation rate per head was independent of floral display and nearly constant within each day. Our results suggest that conventional methods in collecting and analyzing data on pollinator visitation may yield large variance in data derived from temporal and spatial heterogeneity and that improved methods employed here are effective in reducing the variance and estimating patterns of pollinator response to floral display more accurately.

Pollination by deceit in Myristica insipida, a beetle-pollinated nutmeg, was hypothesized to operate on intersexual differences in flower production and longevity, producing a daily fluctuation between floral display maxima and minima. Sticky traps were used to continuously monitor beetle activity. Flower production and naturally occurring intersexual differences in display were recorded. Male and female trees flowered in synchrony producing daily display maxima at 1800‐0600 and display minima at 1400‐1800. Rewarding male trees produced three times the number of flowers of female trees, but the greater longevity of female flowers reduced the intersexual difference in display maxima to a factor of two. There was no intersexual difference in display minima. Beetles were demonstrated to be sensitive to differences in both maximum and minimum displays on rewarding male trees, a necessary prerequisite for directional selection on display size. Beetle captures were significantly higher at male trees during floral display maxima, and no intersexual differences in capture rate occurred during floral display minima. However, capture rates at male trees did not decline as predicted, and the pattern of captures was consistent with crepuscular activity. Beetle captures at male and female trees were lower from 1800 to 0600 and 1000 to 1400, and higher from 0600 to 1000 and 1400 to 1800, but the differences were only significant at female trees. These data suggests that foraging errors are numerous, frequent, and the result of overall foraging activity.

We investigated the effect of flowering time, display size, and local floral density on fruit set in Tolumnia variegata, a pollination-limited orchid that offers no reward to its pollinator(s). During 1990, natural variation in flowering time, display size, and fruit set were monitored in 508 plants at one locality in Puerto Rico. The following season, orchid floral abundance per host tree (Randia aculeata) was manipulated to investigate its effect on fruit set. Four floral abundance treatments were established (700, 500, 300, and 100), each replicated four times. Flowering time was the most important trait affecting fruit set. The proportion of plants setting at least one fruit was significantly high early and late in the season, but low during the flowering peak. Thus, strong disruptive selection differential on flowering phenology was found. Display size had little effect on fruit set. A weak, but significant disruptive selection differential on display size was found. Orchid floral abundance per host tree had a significant effect on fruit set. Early in the season, T. variegata flowers with intermediate number of conspecific flowers exhibited a greater probability of setting fruit than those in host trees with fewer or more flowers. Our results show that flowering phenology may be evolutionarily unstable, possibly a consequence of the deception pollination system. Furthermore, a deception strategy would be relatively unsuccessful in populations where plants are found in either very dense or sparse patches.

One hypothesis for the evolution of maleness in plants postulates the following: male plants appear that have re-allocated resources from female parts into a larger number of male flowers, creating a larger floral display. Pollinators respond "dramatically" to the increased display, driving the spread of males in the population (Bawa, K. S., 1980, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1 1: 15-40). To test this, we measured the total number of flowers and the size of male displays in dioecious Sagittaria latifolia and monoecious S. australis. We also measured how fast visitors arrived at "target" flowers in the displays. Then we used the Cox Model, a failure time analysis procedure, to analyze the relationship between visitor arrival and display size. We found that male display sizes were somewhat larger in the dioecious than the monoecious plants, but this was due to more compressed blooming rather than to a larger total number of flowers. The visitors to both plants were similar arrays of generalist bees. Visitors did not show the predicted "dramatic" response, however, but rather a plateauing response to larger display sizes, so our results do not support the hypothesis. Reviewing the literature, we found no reports of the "dramatic" response the hypothesis asserts. Instead, relative insensitivity to display size is the rule.