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The Intergenerational Reports have helped lengthen the horizon of public policy analysis in Australia, enabling governments to focus on the longer term implications of policy changes, particularly their fiscal implications. Nonetheless, it is important to note that the reports have examined fiscal sustainability from the Commonwealth's perspective, notwithstanding that fiscal sustainability is also an issue for the states and territories. Additionally, the reports have not incorporated contingent fiscal liabilities, notwithstanding their relevance to fiscal sustainability.

The output gap is of central interest to policymakers. Being unobservable, however, its estimation is prone to error, particularly in real time. Errors result from revisions to the data and unavoidable end-point problems associated with the econometric techniques used to estimate it. This is the first study of the seriousness of these problems for Australia. Over a 28-year period, we obtain real-time output-gap estimates which are unbiased and highly correlated with final estimates derived with the latest data and the benefit of hindsight. We conclude that reasonably reliable output gap estimates can be obtained in real time.

The length of the transmission lags from monetary pblicy to output has been the subject of much research over the years, but there are serious problems in isolating the lags with any precision. This paper uses a simple model of Australian output to estimate the length of the lags, and then examines how attempts to grapple with the estimation problems might change the results. We estimate that output growth falls by about one-third of one per cent in both the first and second years after a one percentage point rise in the short-term real interest rate, and by about one-sixth of one per cent in the third year. This implies an average lag of about five or six quarters in monetary policy's impact on output growth. Each of these estimates is, however, subject to considerable uncertainty. We discuss the implications for policy of these relatively long and uncertain lags. Finally, we find no evidence that the average lag from monetary policy to output growth has become any shorter in the 1990s.

This paper explores the relationship between the terms of trade and inflation. It shows, both analytically and empirically, that the exchange rate response to a change in the terms of trade is crucial to the inflation outcome. It suggests the existence of a ‘threshold’ exchange rate response. Our best estimate is that (other things being equal) a rise in the terms of trade is inflationary if the associated rise in the real exchange rate is less than about 1/3-1/2 of the rise in the terms of trade. However, if appreciation of the real exchange rate is larger than this, the consequent fall in the domestic price of importables is large enough that the terms of trade rise reduces inflation, at least in the short run.

A risk-averse US investor adjusts the shares of a portfolio of short-term nominal domestic and foreign assets to maximize expected utility. The optimal strategy is to respond immediately to all new information which arrives weekly. We develop a model to estimate the cost of optimizing less frequently and find that it is generally very small. For example, if the investor adjusts portfolio shares every three months, an average expected utility loss of 0.16 per cent p.a. is incurred. Hence, slight opportunity costs of frequent optimization may outweigh the benefits. This result may help explain forward discount bias.

This paper presents detailed analysis of a very unusual event —a recent six-year period during which big excess returns were earned on the short-term interest-bearing assets of a small open economy: Australia. A risk premium does not explain the excess return. Rather than requiring a risk premium, market participants continually expected significant real depreciation of the Australian dollar, despite the fact that on average it appreciated in real terms. Our results may be a consequence of the foreign exchange market only gradually learning about the changed nature of the world capital market in the 1980s.

We find weak evidence of a stable relationship between the Australian real exchange rate and the terms of trade from 1969 to 1990. Since the float, the terms of trade and long real interest differentials together help to explain the real exchange rate. Our best estimates are that a real exchange rate appreciation of about 0.3 to 0.5 per cent is associated with a 1 per cent improvement in the terms of trade, while an appreciation of about 2 to 3½ per cent is associated with an increase of 1 percentage point in the differential between Australian and world long real interest rates.