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Discontinuation of the contingency between a response and its reinforcer sometimes produces a temporary increase in the response before its rate decreases, a phenomenon called the extinction burst. Prior clinical and basic studies on the prevalence of the extinction burst provide highly disparate estimates. Existing theories on the extinction burst fail to account for the dynamic nature of this phenomenon, and the basic behavioral processes that control response bursting remain poorly understood. In this paper, we first review the basic and applied literature on the extinction burst. We then describe a recent refinement of the concatenated matching law called the temporally weighted matching law that appears to resolve the above-mentioned issues regarding the extinction burst. We present illustrative translational data based conceptually on the model. Finally, we discuss specific recommendations derived from the temporally weighted matching law regarding procedures clinicians could implement to potentially mitigate or prevent extinction bursts.

Results of several recent translational studies have suggested that correlating contextual or discriminative stimuli with the delivery and withholding of reinforcement for the functional communication response (FCR) may mitigate resurgence of destructive behavior, but few, if any, have isolated the effects of those stimuli. In the present study, we first trained the FCR, brought it under stimulus control of a multiple schedule, and thinned its reinforcement schedule in one stimulus context. Next, we conducted resurgence evaluations (i.e., baseline, functional communication training [FCT], extinction challenge) in two novel contexts to test the effects of the discriminative stimuli on resurgence. We programmed one context to include the (a) SD during the FCT phase to signal the availability of reinforcement for the FCR and (b) SΔ during a subsequent extinction challenge to signal the unavailability of reinforcement for the FCR. The other context did not include the SD during the FCT phase, nor the SΔ during the extinction challenge. We expected to see greater persistence of the FCR in the context that included the SD during FCT and less persistence of the FCR and less resurgence of destructive behavior in the context that included the SΔ during the extinction challenge. Obtained results confirmed this latter prediction, but we observed no reliable difference when the SD was present or absent during the FCT phase. Our results have relevance for practitioners in that they provide further empirical support for the use of discriminative stimuli when treating destructive behavior.

Concepts from behavioral momentum theory, along with some empirical findings, suggest that the rate of baseline reinforcement may contribute to the relapse of severe destructive behavior. With seven children who engaged in destructive behavior, we tested this hypothesis in the context of functional communication training by comparing the effects of different baseline reinforcement rates on resurgence during a treatment challenge (i.e., extinction). We observed convincing resurgence of destructive behavior in four of seven participants, and we observed more resurgence in the condition associated with high-rate baseline reinforcement (i.e., variable-interval 2 s in Experiment 1 or fixed-ratio 1 in Experiment 2) compared to a low-rate baseline reinforcement condition. We discuss the implications of these results relative to schedules of reinforcement in the treatment of destructive behavior and strategies to mitigate resurgence in clinical settings.

Balancing efforts to mitigate nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions from crop production while increasing grain yields is an important challenge for agriculture. The objectives of this study were to assess N₂O emissions, soil inorganic nitrogen (N) concentrations, grain yield, and grain N content for three enhanced-efficiency nitrogen fertilizers (EENFs) compared with anhydrous ammonia in a rainfed corn system in Illinois over 3 yr (2015–2017). Treatments included a control (check) and four N sources applied at 202 kg N ha⁻¹: injected anhydrous ammonia, stabilized urea containing urease and nitrification inhibitors (SuperU, Agrotain International), polymer-coated urea (ESN, Agrium Advanced Technologies), and injected urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) + nitrapyrin. Significant reductions in N₂O emissions were observed for several EENFs compared with anhydrous ammonia, but results were not consistent across treatments and years. SuperU reduced area- and yield-scaled N₂O emissions in two of three study years compared with anhydrous ammonia, while ESN had no N₂O mitigation benefit. Injected UAN + nitrapyrin had the highest emissions in the first year but significantly decreased emissions in the second 2 yr. No treatment significantly improved yield or grain N content compared with anhydrous ammonia. In light of efforts to broadly promote EENFs in the US Midwest, these results demonstrate there is some promise for N₂O mitigation, but the lack of clear crop productivity benefits combined with inconsistent N₂O mitigation effects do not support the conclusion that EENFs inherently improve agronomic and environmental outcomes.

Author(s): Yuan, M; Greer, KD; Nafziger, ED; Villamil, MB; Pittelkow, CM | Abstract: The environmental consequences of residue removal practices to support cellulosic biofuel production remain poorly understood. In the U.S. Midwest, corn (Zea mays L.) stover removal combined with no-till practices may increase or decrease soil N2O emissions by influencing soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient dynamics, yet empirical evidence from long-term field experiments is inconsistent. We investigated the effects of residue management (residue retained or removed) and tillage (chisel-till or no-till) on cumulative soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, grain yield, and yield-scaled N2O emissions in a 3-year study initiated 10nyears after treatment implementation in a long-term, continuous corn experiment in Illinois, United States. Crop yields were affected by treatment in only one of three study years, with the combination of residue removal and no-till reducing yields compared to both chisel-till treatments. Cumulative N2O emissions, soil inorganic N concentrations, and yield-scaled N2O emissions differed over the 3-year period and were significantly affected by tillage, with no response to residue management. In 2nyears, no-till decreased cumulative N2O emissions and yield-scaled N2O emissions by an average of 64% and 60%, respectively. Correlations between daily N2O fluxes and soil moisture, temperature, and inorganic N concentrations suggested that the relative importance of these variables changed depending on year and treatment. While more research across a range of sites and management practices is needed, our findings support previous studies which have challenged IPCC methodology assumptions regarding the effects of residue removal on N2O emissions. We conclude there is inherent difficulty in predicting the impacts of residue removal due to the complexity of soil processes underlying N2O emissions coupled with inter-annual weather variability in this rainfed continuous corn system. Future efforts to evaluate the net greenhouse gas emissions of cellulosic biofuel production may benefit from accounting for this uncertainty.

The resurgence of destructive behavior can occur during functional communication training (FCT) if the alternative response contacts a challenge (e.g., extinction). Behavioral momentum theory (BMT) suggests that refinements to FCT could mitigate resurgence of destructive behavior during periods of extinction. Following a functional analysis and treatment with FCT, we combined three refinements to FCT (i.e., the use of a lean schedule of reinforcement for destructive behavior during baseline, a lean schedule for the alternative response during FCT, and an increase in the duration of treatment) and compared the magnitude of resurgence relative to a condition in which FCT was implemented in a traditional manner. Results suggested that the combination of these three refinements to FCT was successful in decreasing the resurgence of destructive behavior during an extinction challenge. We discuss the implications of these findings, as well as areas for future research.

The success of behavioral treatments like functional communication training depends on their continued implementation outside of the clinical context, where failures in caregiver treatment adherence can lead to the relapse of destructive behavior. In the present study, we developed a laboratory model for evaluating the relapse of undesirable caregiver behavior that simulates two common sources of disruption (i.e., changes in context and in treatment efficacy) believed to affect caregiver treatment adherence using simulated confederate destructive behavior. In Phase 1, the caregiver's delivery of reinforcers for destructive behavior terminated confederate destructive behavior in a home-like context. In Phase 2, the caregiver implemented functional communication training in a clinical context in which providing reinforcers for destructive or alternative behavior terminated confederate destructive behavior. In Phase 3, the caregiver returned to the home-like context, and caregiver behavior produced no effect on confederate destructive or alternative behavior, simulating an inconsolable child. Undesirable caregiver behavior relapsed in three of four treatment-adherence challenges.

In this investigation, we (a) define the desirable features of publication-quality, single-case design graphs based on recommendations in the scholarly literature, (b) suggest GraphPad Prism as a suitable graphing program for creating graphs with those features, and (c) develop and validate a video-modeling tutorial designed to train behavior technicians to create such graphs. Our review identified nine commonly recommended features, and Prism facilitated the creation of graphs with those features. We evaluated the effects of a video-modeling tutorial on graphing performance in Prism using a multiple-baseline design. All four technicians showed mastery-level graphing accuracy with accompanying increases in efficiency following training, which maintained at follow-up without direct feedback from an expert behavior analyst. Social-validity measures found the posttraining graphs to be significantly better than publication quality. We discuss these findings relative to challenges of developing efficient and effective staff-training tutorials.

Arranging periods in which requests for reinforcement are denied in a multiple schedule may result in increased destructive behavior during these periods for individuals who receive functional communication training (FCT) as treatment for severe destructive behavior. Providing access to competing activities during periods of reinforcer unavailability has been shown to minimize destructive behavior. We evaluated methods to identify effective competing activities for use when thinning reinforcement availability in a multiple schedule and compared competing activities embedded within the multiple schedule using an alternating-treatments design. Results suggested at least one competing activity facilitated favorable treatment outcomes for each participant. We discuss building on this empirical approach to identify effective competing activities for use during reinforcement schedule thinning.

Functional communication training is a well-established treatment for socially reinforced destructive behavior that typically includes differential reinforcement of the functional communication response (FCR) in combination with extinction of destructive behavior. However, when the schedule of reinforcement for the FCR is thinned, destructive behavior may resurge (e.g., Greer, Fisher, Saini, Owen, & Jones, 2016). Currently, data are unavailable on the prevalence and characteristics of resurgence during reinforcement schedule thinning. In this study, we evaluated the prevalence of resurgence during reinforcement schedule thinning on a per-case and per-schedule-step basis and also evaluated the magnitude of resurgence in relation to the functions of destructive behavior. We observed resurgence in 19 of the 25 (76%) applications of reinforcement schedule thinning. In some cases, the magnitude of resurgence exceeded the mean levels of destructive behavior observed in baseline. We discuss these results relative to prior translational and applied research on resurgence.

Phosphorus fertilization can increase P losses in surface runoff, but limited information is available for fields with

Recent research findings (DeRosa, Fisher, & Steege, ) suggest that minimizing exposure to the establishing operation (EO) for destructive behavior when differential reinforcement interventions like functional communication training (FCT) are introduced may produce more immediate reductions in destructive behavior and prevent or mitigate extinction bursts. We directly tested this hypothesis by introducing FCT with extinction in two conditions, one with limited exposure to the EO (limited EO) and one with more extended exposure to the EO (extended EO) using a combined reversal and multielement design. Results showed that the limited-EO condition rapidly reduced destructive behavior to low levels during every application, whereas the extended-EO condition produced an extinction burst in five of six applications. We discuss these findings in relation to the effects of EO exposure on the beneficial and untoward effects of differential reinforcement interventions.

BACKGROUND Prostate imaging reporting and data system version 2 (PI-RADSv2) recommends a sector map for reporting findings of prostate cancer mulitparametric MRI (mpMRI). Anecdotally, radiologists may demonstrate inconsistent reproducibility with this map. PURPOSE To evaluate interobserver agreement in defining prostate tumor location on mpMRI using the PI-RADSv2 sector map. STUDY TYPE Retrospective. POPULATION Thirty consecutive patients who underwent mpMRI between October, 2013 and March, 2015 and who subsequently underwent prostatectomy with whole-mount processing. FIELD STRENGTH 3T mpMRI with T2 W, diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) (apparent diffusion coefficient [ADC] and b-2000), dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE). ASSESSMENT Six radiologists (two high, two intermediate, and two low experience) from six institutions participated. Readers were blinded to lesion location and detected up to four lesions as per PI-RADSv2 guidelines. Readers marked the long-axis of lesions, saved screen-shots of each lesion, and then marked the lesion location on the PI-RADSv2 sector map. Whole-mount prostatectomy specimens registered to the MRI served as ground truth. Index lesions were defined as the highest grade lesion or largest lesion if grades were equivalent. STATISTICAL TEST Agreement was calculated for the exact, overlap, and proportion of agreement. RESULTS Readers detected an average of 1.9 lesions per patient (range 1.6-2.3). 96.3% (335/348) of all lesions for all readers were scored PI-RADS ≥3. Readers defined a median of 2 (range 1-18) sectors per lesion. Agreement for detecting index lesions by screen shots was 83.7% (76.1%-89.9%) vs. 71.0% (63.1-78.3%) overlap agreement on the PI-RADS sector map (P < 0.001). Exact agreement for defining sectors of detected index lesions was only 21.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 14.4-27.7%) and rose to 49.0% (42.4-55.3%) when overlap was considered. Agreement on defining the same level of disease (ie, apex, mid, base) was 61.4% (95% CI 50.2-71.8%). DATA CONCLUSION Readers are highly likely to detect the same index lesion on mpMRI, but exhibit poor reproducibility when attempting to define tumor location on the PI-RADSv2 sector map. The poor agreement of the PI-RADSv2 sector map raises concerns its utility in clinical practice. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE 3 Technical Efficacy: Stage 2 J. MAGN. RESON. IMAGING 2018;48:482-490.

We compared the functions of problem behavior identified by (a) a functional analysis (FA), (b) an interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis (IISCA) that was informed by the results of an open-ended interview and a structured observation, and (c) a standardized-synthesized contingency analysis (SSCA) in which we synthesized three common functions of problem behavior across 12 individuals in a controlled consecutive case series. We then compared outcomes across assessments. The FA was sufficient in identifying the variables maintaining problem behavior for 11 of the 12 participants, replicating the findings of Fisher, Greer, Romani, Zangrillo, and Owen (2016). Error type (i.e., false positives, false negatives) and error prevalence were similar across functions identified by the IISCA and the SSCA, calling into question the utility of the open-ended interview and the structured observation that informed the IISCA.

Recent research suggests combining putative reinforcers for problem behavior into a single, synthesized contingency may increase efficiency in identifying behavioral function relative to traditional functional analysis (FA; Slaton, Hanley, & Raftery, 2017). Other research suggests potential shortcomings (e.g., false-positive outcomes; Fisher, Greer, Romani, Zangrillo, & Owen, 2016 ) of synthesized contingency analysis (SCA). In prior comparisons of traditional FAs and SCAs investigators could not ascertain with certainty the true function(s) of the participants’ problem behavior for use as the criterion variable. We conducted a translational study to circumvent this limitation by training a specific function for a surrogate destructive behavior prior to conducting a traditional FA and SCA. The traditional FA correctly identified the established function of the target response in all six cases and produced no iatrogenic effects. The SCA produced differentiated results in all cases and iatrogenic effects in three of six cases. We discuss these finding in terms the mechanisms that may promote iatrogenic effects.

Atrazine is a selective triazine herbicide widely used in the United States primarily for control of broadleaf weeds in corn and sorghum. In 2003, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) concluded that atrazine poses potential risks to sensitive aquatic species. Consequently, a surface water monitoring program was developed to assess whether measured levels of atrazine could impact aquatic plants in vulnerable watersheds. To facilitate evaluation of the monitoring data, the Agency needed to establish a level of concern (LOC) below which atrazine would not cause unacceptable adverse effects to aquatic plant communities. Several attempts at developing a community-level LOC have followed from USEPA but none have been formally accepted or endorsed by independent Scientific Advisory Panels. As part of registration review, the USEPA needs to revisit development of a community-level LOC for atrazine that will be protective of aquatic plant communities. This article reviews 4 methods that can or have been used for this purpose. Collectively, the methods take advantage of the large number of single species and mesocosm studies that have been conducted for aquatic plants exposed to atrazine. The Plant Assemblage Toxicity Index (PATI) and the Comprehensive Aquatic Systems Model for atrazine (CASMATZ2) incorporate single-species toxicity data but are calibrated with micro- and mesocosm study results to calculate community-level LOCs. The Brock et al. scoring system relies exclusively on mesocosm studies. Single-species toxicity data were used in a modified version of the USEPA's Water Quality Criteria (WQC) method. The 60-day LOCs calculated using the 4 methods ranged from 19.6 to 26 µg/L. A weight-of-evidence assessment indicated that the CASMATZ2 method was the most environmentally relevant and statistically reliable method. Using all 4 methods with weights based on method reliability, the weighted 60-day LOC was 23.6 µg/L. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2017;13:686–701. © 2016 SETAC

A probabilistic ecological risk assessment (ERA) was conducted to determine the potential effects of acute and chronic exposure of aquatic invertebrate communities to imidacloprid arising from labeled agricultural and non-agricultural uses in the United States. Aquatic exposure estimates were derived using a higher tier refined modeling approach that accounts for realistic variability in environmental and agronomic factors. Toxicity was assessed using refined acute and chronic community-level effect metrics for aquatic invertebrates (i.e., species or taxon sensitivity distributions) developed using the best available data. Acute and chronic probabilistic risk estimates were derived by integrating the exposure distributions for different use patterns with the applicable species or taxon sensitivity distributions to generate risk curves, which plot cumulative probability of exceedance versus the magnitude of effect. Overall, the results of this assessment indicated that the aquatic invertebrate community is unlikely to be adversely affected by acute or chronic exposure to imidacloprid resulting from currently registered uses of imidacloprid in the United States. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

Despite the effectiveness and widespread use of functional communication training (FCT), resurgence of destructive behavior can occur if the functional communication response (FCR) contacts a challenge, such as lapses in treatment integrity. We evaluated a method to mitigate resurgence by conducting FCT using a multiple schedule of reinforcement prior to extinction. After functional analyses of 2 boys' destructive behavior and treatment with FCT (Study 1), we compared levels of resurgence during an extinction challenge either after a typical FCT sequence or after exposure to schedule thinning in the context of a multiple-schedule arrangement (Study 2). Results for both participants suggested that schedule thinning using discriminative stimuli in a multiple schedule mitigated the resurgence of destructive behavior.

Purpose Multiparametric MRI (mpMRI) improves the detection of clinically significant prostate cancer, but is limited by interobserver variation. The second version of theProstate Imaging Reporting and Data System (PIRADSv2) was recently proposed as a standard for interpreting mpMRI. To assess the performance and interobserver agreement of PIRADSv2 we performed a multi-reader study with five radiologists of varying experience. Materials and Methods Five radiologists (n = 2 prostate dedicated, n = 3 general body) blinded to clinicopathologic results detected and scored lesions on prostate mpMRI using PIRADSv2. The endorectal coil 3 Tesla MRI included T2W, diffusion-weighted imaging (apparent diffusion coefficient, b2000), and dynamic contrast enhancement. Thirty-four consecutive patients were included. Results were correlated with radical prostatectomy whole-mount histopathology produced with patient-specific three-dimensional molds. An index lesion was defined on pathology as the lesion with highest Gleason score or largest volume if equivalent grades. Average sensitivity and positive predictive values (PPVs) for all lesions and index lesions were determined using generalized estimating equations. Interobserver agreement was evaluated using index of specific agreement. Results Average sensitivity was 91% for detecting index lesions and 63% for all lesions across all readers. PPV was 85% for PIRADS ≥ 3 and 90% for PIRADS ≥ 4. Specialists performed better only for PIRADS ≥ 4 with sensitivity 90% versus 79% (P = 0.01) for index lesions. Index of specific agreement among readers was 93% for the detection of index lesions, 74% for the detection of all lesions, and 85% for scoring index lesions, and 58% for scoring all lesions. Conclusion By using PIRADSv2, general body radiologists and prostate specialists can detect high-grade index prostate cancer lesions with high sensitivity and agreement. Level of Evidence: 1 J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2017;45:579–585.

Researchers typically modify individual functional analysis (FA) conditions after results are inconclusive (Hanley, Iwata, & McCord, 2003). Hanley, Jin, Vanselow, and Hanratty (2014) introduced a marked departure from this practice, using an interview-informed synthesized contingency analysis (IISCA). In the test condition, they delivered multiple contingencies simultaneously (e.g., attention and escape) after each occurrence of problem behavior; in the control condition, they delivered those same reinforcers noncontingently and continuously. In the current investigation, we compared the results of the IISCA with a more traditional FA in which we evaluated each putative reinforcer individually. Four of 5 participants displayed destructive behavior that was sensitive to the individual contingencies evaluated in the traditional FA. By contrast, none of the participants showed a response pattern consistent with the assumption of the IISCA. We discuss the implications of these findings on the development of accurate and efficient functional analyses.

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) and response blocking are 2 common interventions for problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. We implemented NCR and blocking with 1 boy and found this combined intervention to be effective at decreasing high rates of automatically reinforced pica. With another child, we compared the effects of blocking alone to the combined intervention. With the 3rd child, we compared NCR alone and blocking alone to the combined intervention. Results showed that the combined intervention was effective at reducing automatically reinforced problem behavior while moderate to high levels of item engagement were maintained. When evaluated individually, neither NCR nor blocking was sufficient to reduce problem behavior to clinically significant levels.

We evaluated the combined and sequential effects of 3 toilet-training procedures recommended for use with young children: (a) underwear, (b) a dense sit schedule, and (c) differential reinforcement. A total of 20 children participated. Classroom teachers implemented a toilet-training package consisting of all 3 procedures with 6 children. Of the 6 children, 2 showed clear and immediate improvements in toileting performance, and 3 showed delayed improvements. Teachers implemented components of the training package sequentially with 12 children. At least 2 of the 4 children who experienced the underwear component after baseline improved. Toileting performance did not improve for any of the 8 children who were initially exposed to either the dense sit schedule or differential reinforcement. When initial training components were ineffective, teachers implemented additional components sequentially until toileting performance improved or all components were implemented. Toileting performance often improved when underwear or differential reinforcement was later added.

Two principal goals of functional communication training (FCT) are (a) to eliminate destructive behavior and (b) to establish a more acceptable, yet functionally equivalent, communication response (FCR). A related and critically important goal is to thin the schedule of reinforcement for the FCR to levels that can be reasonably managed by caregivers. Researchers have described several approaches to thinning FCT reinforcement schedules. We summarize the results of 25 consecutive applications (among 20 cases) in which schedule-thinning procedures employed discriminative stimuli to signal when the FCR would and would not produce reinforcement (i.e., using multiple schedules, response restriction, or chained schedules). Results suggest that schedule-thinning procedures that use discriminative stimuli can maintain the effectiveness of FCT while they minimize the need for punishment or other supplemental procedures.

Multiple schedules with signaled periods of reinforcement and extinction have been used to thin reinforcement schedules during functional communication training (FCT) to make the intervention more practical for parents and teachers. We evaluated whether these signals would also facilitate rapid transfer of treatment effects across settings and therapists. With 2 children, we conducted FCT in the context of mixed (baseline) and multiple (treatment) schedules introduced across settings or therapists using a multiple baseline design. Results indicated that when the multiple schedules were introduced, the functional communication response came under rapid discriminative control, and problem behavior remained at near-zero rates. We extended these findings with another individual by using a more traditional baseline in which problem behavior produced reinforcement. Results replicated those of the previous participants and showed rapid reductions in problem behavior when multiple schedules were implemented across settings.

Problem behavior exhibited by individuals with autism can be disruptive to family traditions, such as decorating for the holidays. We present data for a 6-year-old girl who engaged in automatically reinforced pica and destruction of holiday decorations. Treatment was evaluated within an ABCDCD reversal design. During baseline (Phases A and B), we observed elevated rates of problem behavior. We implemented differential reinforcement of alternative behavior in Phase C to teach a response to compete with problem behavior. Little change in toy play or problem behavior occurred. In Phase D, we added a facial screen to the differential reinforcement procedures, which resulted in increases in toy play and decreases in problem behavior. Findings are discussed in terms of how interventions for problem behavior can promote alternative behavior while they facilitate household activities and traditions.

We conducted functional analyses (FA) with 4 typically developing preschool children during ongoing classroom activities and evaluated treatments that were based on FA results. Results of each child's FA suggested social-positive reinforcement functions, and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior plus time-out was effective in decreasing problem behavior and increasing appropriate behavior. We discuss the utility of classroom-based FAs and potential compromises to experimental control.

Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012; 35: 284–291 Summary Background Randomised controlled trials demonstrate that methotrexate is effective in inducing remission and preventing relapse of Crohn’s disease (CD) as a first-line immunosuppressant, but efficacy data after failure with, or intolerance to, thiopurines are limited. Aims To report efficacy of methotrexate in a cohort of refractory CD patients, most of whom had not responded to, or were intolerant of, thiopurines. Methods Data were collected for patients receiving methotrexate for active CD. Response to methotrexate induction therapy at 4 months, and sustained clinical benefit at last point of follow-up with maintenance therapy, were assessed via physician’s global assessment. Demographic and disease factors predicting response, or sustained clinical benefit, were examined by univariate and multivariate analysis. Results Sixty-six [38 (54%) female patients, mean age at diagnosis 29.4 years] patients received methotrexate between 2001 and 2010, 61 (92%) of whom received the drug parenterally. Sixty patients had failed, or were intolerant of, thiopurines. Response to therapy at 4 months occurred in 54 (82%) patients. However, sustained clinical benefit occurred in only 19 (29%) patients at last point of follow-up, including six patients who discontinued the drug for family planning reasons. No predictors of response or sustained clinical benefit were identified. Adverse events occurred in 20 (30%) patients. Conclusions These data suggest that methotrexate is effective in terms of initial response in Crohn’s disease patients who have failed, or are intolerant of, thiopurines. However, efficacy is not sustained in the long term.

Phosphorus fertilizer is frequently fall-applied for corn (Zea mays L.). Diammonium-(DAP) or monoammonium-phosphates (MAP) are the preferred P fertilizers and the N in MAP and DAP is assumed to be available for corn. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of application time on availability of ammoniated-phosphate N to the crop in two different environments. In a laboratory study, MAP and DAP at rates of 70 and 140 mg N kg -1 soil were incubated at either 80 or 120% field capacity (FC). Nitrification proceeded rapidly in all treatments, but nitrate levels fell to near zero by 8 wk at 120% FC while remaining above 50% after 16 wk at 80% FC. In a 3-yr study at Waseca, MN and Urbana, IL with a factorial combination of three N sources [DAP, MAP, ammonium-sulfate (AMS)], two application times (fall, spring), and two N rates (45, 90 kg N ha -1 ), N rate and application time, but not N source, affected grain yield and inorganic soil-N concentrations. Yields were 0.71 and 0.37 Mg ha -1 greater for spring than fall applications at Urbana and Waseca, respectively. Late May soil-N recovery ranged from 31 to 35 and 90 to 100% for fall and spring applications, respectively. It thus appears that only about one-third of N applied in the fall as ammoniated phosphates at typical rates is available to the next year's corn crop in Corn Belt mollisols. Colder, drier fall to spring conditions may increase this proportion, while warmer, wetter conditions would be expected to lower availability.

Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010; 32: 1357–1363 Summary Background Infliximab is effective for induction and maintenance of remission in patients with Crohn’s disease. There are few data, however, examining effect of infliximab therapy on management costs of Crohn's disease. Aim To assess Crohn's disease-related costs of care and resource use in a single-centre cohort of patients with Crohn's disease 12 months pre- and post-infliximab therapy. Methods Data on 100 consecutive patients receiving infliximab were collected. Crohn's disease-related resource use was collected 12 months pre- and post-infliximab. National Health Service reference costs were applied to these data and the total Crohn's disease-related health service costs per patient were calculated (£UK). The cost of infliximab therapy was not included in our analysis. Results Cost savings were demonstrated in all areas of Crohn's disease-related resource use following infliximab therapy. Mean total Crohn's disease-related cost reduction, 12 months following commencement of infliximab therapy, was £2750 per patient. Mean costs at 12 months post-infliximab in responders were lower than in nonresponders (£1656 vs. £3608, P = 0.02). The number of hospitalizations was reduced. Requirements for examination under anaesthesia were also significantly decreased. Conclusion Infliximab use resulted in Crohn's disease-related cost savings and hospital resource use, although this was not sufficient to cover the cost of therapy.

Two studies demonstrated a functional relationship between a peer modeling procedure and the treatment of feeding disorders with 2 young children. In the first experiment, the use of a peer model treatment package was shown to induce swallowing in a child with dysphagia who had never swallowed food or liquid. In the second experiment, a child who consistently declined food was induced to increase food acceptance as a function of the same peer modeling package. In the latter experiment, a peer-mediated procedure, consisting of rotated opportunities to consume food with a peer, was found to increase consumption more than did modeling alone. The first experiment used a multiple baseline design across solids and liquids, and the second used a multiple treatment design. The results of both experiments are discussed as new and nonaversive treatments for feeding disorders of young children who are imitative.

Operant procedures were tested on three patients who had been in vegetative coma for 6 months, 10 months, and 38 months. A discrete trial procedure was used to test compliance to verbal requests for three behaviors for each patient, including lateral head movement or finger movement, eye focus or eye squeeze, and mouth movement. The design for each patient consisted of multiple baselines across three behaviors with a withdrawal phase and a reinstatement phase (ABAB) for one behavior. Baseline phases were followed by contingent music phases in which 15-second taped excerpts of patients' preferred music sounded immediately following the emission of targeted behaviors. The contingent music treatment affected all three behaviors for Patient 1, but was less effective for two out of three behaviors for the second and third patients who had been in coma for more extensive periods of time. Results are discussed in terms of the potential contributions of the use of operant assessment and treatment procedures in an area of medicine where they have not been used before.