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The aims of this study were to determine the current prevalence of regurgitation and reingestion (R/R) and gain an insight on the occurrence of coprophagy in the Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) population. To do this, an online survey was sent to all AZA accredited gorilla institutions in 2018. This survey collected information on the severity of R/R at the individual level and the occurrence of coprophagy at the zoo level. Previous research suggests more than half of zoo-housed gorillas in the North American population engaged in R/R and coprophagy to some extent. The current study had a 100% response and completion rate; data were collected on all 296 noninfant gorillas in the population. Responses indicated that 60% of the AZA gorilla population engages in R/R to some degree and 24% of the population are observed exhibiting coprophagy on a weekly basis. With this preliminary information on coprophagy, and the realization that the Zoo community has been unsuccessful at eliminating R/R over the past 30 years, the next steps should be aimed at empirically assessing the potential drivers of these behaviors. Continuing efforts to further understand and eliminate R/R and coprophagy in zoo-housed primates is important not only because these behaviors are unsightly to visitors, but more importantly, R/R and coprophagy may signal deficiencies in current practices surrounding animal care.

Cecotrophy is a special behaviour of rabbits. Eating soft faeces can improve feed efficiency and maintain gut flora in rabbits. In our previous study, we found that fasting from soft faeces significantly reduced growth rate and total cholesterol (TC) in New Zealand white rabbits (NZW rabbits), thereby resulting in lower values for body weight and fat deposition in the soft faeces fasting group than in the control group. However, it has not been demonstrated whether cecotrophy by NZW rabbits can regulate lipid metabolism by changing the diversity of caecal microorganisms. In this study, thirty-six 28-day-old weaned NZW female rabbits were randomly divided into two groups (the soft faeces fasting group and the control group) and fed to 90 days. Rabbits in the experimental group were treated with an Elizabeth circle to prevent them from eating their soft faeces. Then, the caecal contents of three rabbits from the soft faeces fasting group and three rabbits from the control group were collected for metagenomic sequencing. We found that the abundance of Bacteroides increased, while Ruminococcus decreased, compared with the control group after fasting from soft faeces. Relative abundance was depressed for genes related to metabolic pathways such as ascorbate and aldarate metabolism, riboflavin metabolism and bile secretion. Moreover, there was a general correlation between variation in microbial diversity and fat deposition. Bacteroides affects body weight and TC by participating in the riboflavin metabolism pathway. By investigating the effect of cecotrophy on caecal microorganisms of rabbits, we identified the key microorganisms that regulate the rapid growth performance of NZW rabbits, which may provide useful reference for the future research and development of microecological preparations for NZW rabbits.

© 2017 The Authors. Canine conspecific coprophagy, the tendency or predisposition of some dogs to eat their own faeces or those of other dogs, seems paradoxical because dogs typically show an aversion to conspecific faeces. In an attempt to resolve this paradox, we set out to determine the factors associated with the occurrence of this behaviour and to evaluate the efficacy of 11 products marketed for treating coprophagy as well as behaviour modification procedures. Because a large sample of dogs was needed to address these issues, two web-based surveys were utilized. One, intended to compare coprophagic dogs and non-coprophagic dogs, yielded 1552 returns. The other, yielding 1475 usable returns, specifically recruited owners of coprophagic dogs to gather information about the characteristics of coprophagy and treatment success. The findings revealed that 16% of dogs sampled engaged in frequent conspecific coprophagy, defined as having been seen eating stools at least six times. No evidence was found relating the coprophagy to diet or the dog’s age. Coprophagic dogs were as easily house trained as non-coprophagic dogs, suggesting a normal aversion to faeces. Coprophagic dogs were more likely to be reported as greedy eaters than non-coprophagic dogs. The reported success rate of the commercial products and behaviour modification approaches was close to zero, indicating that the behaviour is not readily changed. The coprophagy was overwhelmingly directed at fresh stools, defined as being no more than 2 days old. A hypothesis is offered that coprophagy reflects a tendency inherited from the ancestral wolf to keep the den area free of faecal-borne intestinal parasites that might be deposited in the den resting area and would typically have parasite ova that are not initially infective, but could develop infective larvae after 2 days. An evolved parasite defence strategy to consume fresh faeces in the rest area would be adaptive.

Objectives To assess the impact of four rabbit diets (hay only, extruded diet with hay, muesli with hay and muesli only) on faecal pellet size, faecal output and caecotrophy. Materials and Methods Thirty-two Dutch rabbits were studied over 17 months. Faecal pellet size and weight were measured in weeks 3, 9, 21 and 43 and faecal output in weeks 10, 22 and 45. Number of uneaten caecotrophs was recorded weekly. Results Faecal pellets were consistently smaller and lighter in rabbits fed muesli only, and the size of pellets produced by those fed muesli with hay decreased over the course of the study. Faecal output was greatest in rabbits with the highest hay intake. Uneaten caecotrophs were found in greatest frequency in rabbits fed muesli. Clinical Significance Muesli diets have a negative effect on faecal output and caecotroph ingestion and may therefore predispose to digestive disorders. Higher hay intake is associated with greater faecal output and fewer uneaten caecotrophs and may assist in preventing the gastrointestinal stasis.

A colonic separation mechanism (CSM) is the prerequisite for the digestive strategy of coprophagy. Two different CSM are known in small herbivores, the 'wash-back' CSM of lagomorphs and the 'mucous-trap' CSM of rodents. Differences between these groups in their digestive pattern when fed exclusively hay were investigated in six rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and six guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Intake, digestibility (by total faecal collection), solute and particle mean retention times (MRT, using Co-EDTA and Cr-mordanted fibres) were measured. Rabbits selected less fibrous parts of the hay than guinea pigs, leaving orts with higher content of neutral detergent fibre [NDF; 721 ± 21 vs. 642 ± 31 g/kg dry matter (DM) in guinea pigs]. They also expressed a lower NDF digestibility (0.44 ± 0.10 vs. 0.55 ± 0.05 of total), a similar particle MRT (15 ± 3 vs. 18 ± 6 h), a longer solute MRT (51 ± 9 vs. 16 ± 4 h), and a lower calculated dry matter gut fill (19.6 ± 4.7 vs. 29.7 ± 4.1 g DM/kg body mass) than guinea pigs (p < 0.05 for each variable). These results support the assumption that the 'wash-back' CSM, exhibited in the rabbits, is more efficient in extracting bacterial matter from the colonic digesta plug than the 'mucous-trap' CSM found in the guinea pigs. Related to metabolic body mass, rabbits therefore need a less capacious colon for their CSM where a more efficient bacteria wash-out is reflected in the lower fibre digestibility. A lighter digestive tract could contribute to a peculiarity of lagomorphs: their ability to run faster than other similar-sized mammals.

Summary Using the 14C-PEG dilution method, cecal volumes were measured in 2 domestic rabbits at 2 different times of day. Each experimental period lasted 8–12 hours. The cecal volumes were 22.6 ± 4.3 ml./kg. during daytime and 17.0 ± 4.3 ml./kg. during the night. The larger cecal volume coincided with the time following the coecotrophy period, the smaller one with the time before and during the next one. The day-time figure corresponds closely to a volume of cecal contents of 24 ± 7 ml./kg. measured post mortem in 7 other animals. The relationship between cecal volume and coecotrophy is discussed. Zusammenfassung Tagesrhythmische Unterschiede des Blinddarmvolumens bei Kaninchen. In vivo-Messungen mit 14C-PEG Mit der 14C-PEG Verdunnungsmethode wurden die Blinddarmvolumina von zwei Hauskaninchen zu verschiedenen Tageszeiten gemessen. Jede Versuchsperiode dauerte 8–12 Stunden. Die Blinddarmvolumina waren 22,6 ± 4,3 ml/kg wahrend des Tages und 17,0 ± 4,3 ml/kg wahrend der Nacht. Die groseren Blinddarmvolumina wurden jeweils in der Zeit nach der Coecotrophie gefunden, die kleineren in der Zeit vor und wahrend der Coecotrophie. Die wahrend des Tages gemessenen Werte entsprechen einem bei 7 anderen Tieren post mortem gemessenen mittleren Volumen des Blinddarm-inhalts von 24 ± 7 ml/kg. Beziehungen zwischen Blinddarmvolumen und Coecotrophiephasen werden diskutiert. Resume Variations nycthemerales du volume caecal chez le lapin mesurees in vivo avec de 14C-PEG On a mesure avec la methode de dilution 14C-PEG les volumes du caecum a differents moments de la journee chez deux lapins domestiques. Chaque periode de recherche a dure de 8 a 12 heures. Les volumes du caecum furent 22,6 ± 4,3 ml/kg durant le jour et 17,0 ± 4,3 ml/kg durant la nuit. Les plus gros volumes furent toutefois trouves apres la coecotrophie et les plus petits avant ou pendant la coecotrophie. Les valeurs mesurees pendant le jour correspondent au volume moyen du contenu du caecum de 24 ± 7 ml/kg mesure chez 7 autres animaux post mortem. On discute les rapports entre les volumes du caecum et les coecotrophies. Resumen Variaciones diurnas del volumen cecal en el conejo, medidas in vivo con 14C-PEG Usando la tecnica de dilucion de 14C-PEG, se midieron los volumenes cecales en 2 conejos domesticos en 2 ocasiones diarias. Cada periodo experimental duraba de 8–12 horas. Los volumenes ciegos median 22,6 ± 4,3 ml/kg durante el dia y 17,0 ± 4,3 ml/kg durante la noche. Los volumenes cecales mayores se hallaron cada vez en el tiempo tras la cecotrofia, los menores en el tiempo anterior a la cecotrofia y durante la misma. Los valores medidos durante el dia equivalen al volumen medio del contenido cecal de 24 ± 7 ml/kg, medido post mortem en 7 otros animales. Se discuten las relaciones que existen entre el volumen cecal y las fases de cecotrofia.

Small mammalian herbivores have a limitation in their supply system of nutrients to their energy and protein demands because they need much more energy and protein per unit body mass than larger herbivorous animals. Therefore, small herbivores need to have characteristic strategies in their digestive systems to overcome the limitation of their small body mass compared with larger animals. Although small herbivorous mammals commonly have an enlarged cecum, the pattern of flow and mixing of digesta in the large intestine varies among them. Distinct separation of the larger fiber particles from smaller and liquid contents which are retained in the cecum can be recognized in some species. Coprophagy, practiced by many small herbivores, has nutritional significance providing a source of vitamins, amino acids, and other nutrients which are excreted with feces. Among coprophagous mammals, several species produce two types of feces: soft feces, which are eaten; and hard, which are not eaten. Soft feces contain more water than hard feces and dry matter includes more protein and less fiber. Coprophagic behavior must be supported by the colonic separation mechanism, which operates retrograde transport of fluid and fine particle digesta or bacteria trapped in the mucus, resulting in high density bacteria in the cecum contents, which is successively consumed as cecotroph. These mechanisms must be necessary for small herbivores to survive on the feed in their habitat.

Amino acid, mineral and vitamin levels in hydrous faeces obtained from coprophagy-prevented rats were examined. Two experiments were conducted with rats of different age, 4 weeks and 10 weeks. Six rats each were fed under coprophagy-prevented and coprophagy-allowed (conventional feeding) conditions, respectively. In the first experiment using 4-week-old rats, amino acid values were determined for hydrous faeces and usual faeces obtained in the above-mentioned conditions. In the second experiment using 10-week-old rats, mineral values were determined for both types of faeces. Vitamin values were determined in both experiments. In a comparison of amino acid values and their patterns, specific kinds of amino acids in hydrous faeces were not recognized as growth factors. Sodium and potassium levels in hydrous faeces were significantly higher than those for usual faeces, but those levels were 1/(18-20) of those derived from feed. Although cyanocobalamin and folic acid levels in hydrous faeces were two to three times higher than those for usual faeces, folic acid supplements from coprophagy were 1/8 of those derived from feed. Cyanocobalamin supplements from hydrous faeces were five times larger than those from feed. Therefore, it appears that cyanocobalamin was supplied by the ingestion of hydrous faeces and that this cyanocobalamin supports conventional growth in rats.

Background The mouse model using a human isolate of Helicobacter pylori is being widely accepted as an economical means of studying gastric infection. A noninvasive monitoring method would be useful for repeated testing to establish the time course of infection and the efficacy of treatments. In this study, we describe factors that affected interpretation of 13C urea breath test results for the assessment of H. pylori infection status in this model. Materials and methods Female C57B1/6 mice that underwent gavage with H. pylori or saline were breath-tested using 50 micrograms of 13C urea at intervals up to 2 months after inoculation. The generation of 13CO2 (excess delta 13CO2) by infected mice was compared to that of uninfected controls. The effects of diet, fasting, and coprophagy on the reliability of the 13C urea breath test were quantitated. Results Both commercial and synthetic mouse diets exhibited marked in vitro urease activity. A minimum fasting time of 13 hours prior to breath testing significantly reduced this dietary contribution to excess delta 13CO2 values. The coprophagic tendency of the mice caused spuriously high excess delta 13CO2 counts in the breath of both control and H. pylori-infected mice. Conclusions Although the dietary contribution to spuriously high values of excess delta 13CO2 in mice breath-tested for H. pylori infection was reduced by fasting, the high nonspecific urease activity generated by coprophagy severely limited the reliability of the urea breath test in the assessment of H. pylori infection status.

Twenty-eight domestic dogs with the behavioural problem of eating their own faeces were treated in two ways. Half of them were treated with a citronella spray collar, and the others were treated with sound therapy. To assess the relative efficacy of the treatments their owners rated the severity of their dog's faeces eating for a week before the study began, during each of three weeks of treatment, and at the end of a fourth week during which they had not been treated. The owners reported a significantly lower incidence of the behavioural problem during the first week of both treatments, but in the dogs treated by sound therapy its incidence subsequently increased. The behavioural problem was reduced most effectively in the dogs treated with the spray collar, and continued to decrease during the period of treatment.

Background Determining the cause of pruritus relies on establishing the pattern of abnormal pruritus. The presence of gastrointestinal (GI) disease has also been helpful in determining the cause of pruritus. No study has systematically evaluated typical GI signs and pruritic behaviours in apparently healthy dogs. Hypothesis/Objectives To evaluate owners’ perceptions of pruritus and GI signs in apparently healthy dogs, and determine if age, breed, activity, diet or supplements affected these signs. Animals Three hundred and fourteen apparently healthy dogs ≥12 months old with an unremarkable physical examination and no history of pruritus, otitis, skin/hair disease, metabolic or GI disease were enrolled. Methods Thirty one veterinarians enrolled dogs after establishing their pruritus visual analog scale (PVAS) score and faecal consistency score (FCS); owners completed a comprehensive online survey regarding GI signs, possible pruritic behaviours, ear cleaning and sneezing. Results A PVAS score of ≤1.9 was recorded in 87.6% of dogs and the FCS was 2–3 in 94.9% of dogs. PVAS was positively correlated with paw licking/chewing, facial/muzzle rubbing, head shaking and sneezing. Scooting was positively correlated with sneezing. Over 96% of dogs had 1–3 bowel movements (BM) per day. Age was positively correlated with facial/muzzle rubbing, sneezing, coprophagia and borborygmi. The number of walks/day was positively correlated with paw licking/chewing, head shaking, sneezing, number of BM/day, coprophagia, belching, flatulence and borborygmi. Conclusion and clinical importance A standard method of asking relevant questions was developed and the frequency of GI signs and many behaviours that may indicate pruritus in apparently healthy dogs was established.

Transovarial transmission was not detectable among Blastocrithidia triatomae-infected Triatoma infestans. Rather, B. triatomae was transmitted directly between triatomines by cannibalism and coprophagy. Cannibalism conditions that excluded coprophagy always resulted in an infection of Dipetalogaster maxima. The efficiency of transmission was not influenced by the blood source--mice or chickens--fed to the infected donor bugs although chicken blood lyses the epimastigotes of the stomach population. Triatoma infestans was infected by coprophagy only if fed, not if unfed. Blastocrithidia triatomae in dry feces was taken up only if the feces were redissolved in fresh feces. Infections also appeared in groups of bugs fed on chickens previously used for feeding infected bugs.

Fifty-nine male Sprague-Dawley rata were subjected to an end-to-side portacaval shunt and compared with appropriate controls. During the first ten days after the operation, the liver weights decreased from an average of 4.2 to 2.3% of the body weight and thereafter remained at this level. Testicular atrophy also occurred regularly but only after the tenth postoperative day. Three weeks after the operation, the body weight of shunted rats had decreased by an average of 20%, whereas sham operated controls gained 17%. These changes were related to food intake and coprophagy. Hyper-ammonaemia developed gradually and levelled off at about 500 (μg/100 ml. Other alterations were more variable in severity. Spontaneous motor activity decreased to 12–77% of the preoperative value and was significantly correlated with changes in body weight. The electrocorticographic pattern was characterized by an average increase in rapid waves to 205% after five to six weeks, whereas the slow waves remained unchanged. These studies have established a standard of reference for further investigations with this animal model.